Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Origins, AC (AC, AC, AC), AC (AC, AC, AC), Outer Membrane, AC (AC, AC), AC…

- - - - Ground Meristem
      - Procambium
      - Protoderm
    - - Food-conducting/ Phloem
        
        Specialized parenchyma
        
        Sieve Cells and Albuminous Cells
        
        Sieve Tube Element and Companion Cell
        
        Sieve Tube Element has Sieve Plate with many pores
        
        Many sieve tube elements can form a sieve tube
        
        Living at maturity
        
        Callose forms plugs in the sieve plates
        
        Both cells come from 1 mother cell
        
        Sieve tube elements are completely dependent on Companion Cell
        
        Connected via plasmodesmata
        
        P-proteins help block pores during leakage
        
        Forisomes in legumes used as plugs
        
        Seive tube contains plastids, ER, and some mitochondria, no nucleus
        
        Gymnosperms contain only these
        
        Sieve area is mostly on the ends, and lacks a sieve plate
        
        Transports food, hormones, and electrical signals
        
        Sieve area has narrow pores
        
        Albuminous Cells are AKA Strasburger Cells
        
        Common in Bryophytes
        
        Specialized plasmodesmata
        
        Rarely has nuclear breakdown
        
        Features common to Sieve Cells
      - Water-conducting/ Xylem
        
        No specialized cells/ Poikilohydric
        
        Hydroids
        
        Tracheid elements
        
        Early Tracheids
        
        True Tracheids
        
        5 more items...
        
        Lignified
        
        Provide little to no support
        
        Long and wide
        
        In some ferns along with vessel elements
        
        Mostly in Lycophytes
        
        Lignified
        
        Dead at maturity
        
        No Plasmodesmata
        
        Bryophytes
        
        Refill from cavitation
        
        Water content dependent on environment
        
        Stayed small to reduce water demand
        
        Early land Plants
    - - Lycophytes
        
        Monilophytes
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        Monocots
        
        Eudicots
        
        Eustele, Endarch
        
        Ground Tissue (pith)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Ground Tissue (Parenchyma)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Atactostele
        
        Ground tissue (no pith)
        
        Vascular Bundles (Scattered throughout)
        
        Ground Tissue (Parenchyma)
        
        Siphonostele, Endarch
        
        Stele
        
        Cortex
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Phloem
        
        Endoderm
        
        Ground tissue/ Parenchyma
        
        Protostele, Exarch
        
        Stele
        
        Cortex
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Phloem
        
        Ground Tissue/Parenchyma
    - - Allows for secondary growth (except in monocots), the growth of girth
      - Secondary Growth
        
        Fusiform initials
        
        Stem Cells
        
        Fascicular Cambium
        
        Xylem and Phloem
        
        Ray initials
        
        Stem Cells
        
        Interfascicular Cambium
        
        Ray Cells
        
        Periclinal divisions
        
        More xylem and phloem
        
        Divides parallel to Vascular Cambium
        
        Anticlinal divisions
        
        Adds more Vascular Cambium
      - Early/Late wood
        
        Early Spring
        
        Warm, wet environment leads to development of large elements, thus lighter rings
        
        Late Summer
        
        Hot, dry environment leads to development of small elements, thus darker rings
      - Heartwood/Sapwood
        
        Sapwood
        
        Water Transport
        
        Heartwood
        
        Storage
      - Softwood/Hardwood
        
        Softwood
        
        Little room for fibers
        
        Gymnosperms
        
        Tracheids only
        
        Hardwood
        
        More space for fibers
        
        Angiosperms
        
        Vessel Elements
      - Cross-section of a Eudicot
  - - - Rhizoids
        
        Genes predate land plants
        
        Main function is anchorage, secondary function is some nutrient uptake
      - Rhizomorphs
        
        Similar to roots in that it doesn't have stomata or chlorophyll
        
        Does not have a root cap
        
        Dichotomous rooting system
    - - Root types
        
        Primary root
        
        Derived from radicle
        
        Mainly dominant in eudicots
        
        Lateral root
        
        Adventitious roots
        
        From shoot body
        
        Seminal roots
        
        From mesocotyl
      - Root body plan
        
        Pericycle
        
        Pluripotent
        
        Initiation of lateral root
        
        First layer of cells inside endodermis
        
        Endodermis
        
        Prevents apoplastic water movement
        
        Forces water to move through cell membranes (symplastic)
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Root Cap
        
        Cells slough off
        
        Secretes a mucilage
        
        Protect underlying tissue
        
        Root Hairs
        
        Necessary to absorb water and minerals
        
        Delicate and short lived
        
        Single-Celled
        
        Apical Meristem
        
        Quiescent Center (in euphyllophytes)
        
        Can become meristematic if necessary
        
        Rarely divides
        
        Cortex
        
        Outermost layers may include
        
        Exodermis
        
        Casparian strip
        
        Suberized lamella
        
        Hypodermis
        
        Between endo and epidermis
        
        Large storage area
        
        Root tip zones
        
        Zone of elongation
        
        Zone of division
        
        Zone of differentiation
    - - Lycophytes
        
        Metaxylem
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Phloem
        
        Pericycle
        
        Endodermis
        
        1 more item...
        
        Monocot
        
        Eudicot
        
        No pith
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Metaxylem + Phloem
        
        Pericycle
        
        1 more item...
        
        Pith
        
        Pith (Ground Tissue)
        
        Protoxylem
        
        Metaxylem + Phloem
        
        Pericycle
        
        1 more item...
        
        No Root Cap or Root Hairs
  - - - Lycophyte
        
        Microphyll
        
        Mitosis of 2 epidermal cells
        
        Single vascular trace
        
        Vascular strand connects directly to stem
        
        Has mesophyll, epidermis, and stomata
      - Monilophyte
        
        Frond
        
        Mitosis of single apical cell
        
        Shoot-like development
      - Liverwort/Moss
        
        Mitosis of a single cell
      - Seed plants
        
        Euphylls
        
        Pool of recruited cells
        
        From flanks of multicellular shoot apical meristem
        
        Monocot
        
        Epidermis
        
        Covered by cuticle
        
        Contains stomata
        
        Bulliform cells
        
        Roll and unroll leaf in response to drying out
        
        Adaxial (outer) and Abaxial (towards stem)
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Veins
        
        Surrounded by bundle sheaths
        
        Eudicots
        
        Mesophyll
        
        Pallisade
        
        Photosynthesis
        
        Spongy
        
        Gas exchange
        
        Veins
        
        Bundle sheath cells
        
        Xylem on top, phloem on bottom
        
        Epidermis
        
        Cuticle
        
        Upper and lower
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Epidermal cells
        
        Guard cells
    - - Enation Theory
        
        Progressive elaboration of epidermal outgrowths
        
        Vascular strands entered later
        
        Lycophyte leaves
        
        Fossils consistent with this belief
        
        Living evidence supports this in Selaginella draussiana
      - Zimmerman Telome Theory
        
        Overtopping
        
        Main branch and side branch
        
        Planation
        
        Flattening of axis into 2 dimensions
        
        Euphylls
        
        Webbing
        
        Develop thin tissue between axes of branches
        
        Branches become veins
        
        Webbing becomes mesophyll
        
        Widespread euphylls by Devonian
    - - Aerenchyma
        
        Specialized parenchyma
        
        Contains air spaces from cells being digested
        
        Ground Tissue
        
        Main function is to permit gas exchange
        
        Large air pockets for buoyancy in aquatic plants
      - Collenchyma
        
        Thickened primary cell walls
        
        Main function is flexible support
        
        Ground Tissue
        
        Found in bundle sheath of veins in some species
      - Chlorrenchyma
        
        Specialized parenchyma
        
        Contains chloroplasts
        
        Ground Tissue
        
        Main function is potosynthesis
      - Vascular tissue
        
        Xylem
        
        Phloem
      - Epidermis
        
        Epidermal cells
        
        Guard cells
        
        Dermal tissue
        
        Often cutenized
        
        Main function is protection
    - - Monocot Euphyll
      - Eudicot Euphyll
      - Lycophylls
  - - - Sepals
    - - Petals
      - Perianth
    - - Pedicel (in inflorescence)
    - - Stamen
        
        Anther
        
        Filament
    - - Carpal
        
        Style
        
        Ovary
        
        Ovules
        
        Stigma
  - - - Endosperm
    - - Embryo
    - - Seed Coat
    - - Pericarp (fruit)
        
        Mesocarp
        
        Exocarp
        
        Endocarp
    - - Fruit with accesory tissue/ tissue besides the ovary
      - Can be simple, aggregate or multiple
    - - Fruit develops without fertilization and without seed development
    - - Either single carpel or multiple united carpels
      - Fleshy types
      - Dry types
        
        Dehiscent
        
        Indehiscent
    - - Apocarpous gynoecium
      - Carpal maintains its identity in mature state
    - - Derived from an inflorescence
      - Combined gynoecia of many flowers
- - - - Alpha Glucose
        
        Polymers
        
        Amylose (Alpha 1:4 bond)
        
        Starch (Amylose + Amylopectin)
        
        Amylopectin (Alpha 1:6 bond)
      - Beta Glucose
        
        Polymer
        
        Cellulose (Beta 1:4 bond)
- - - - Animals carry the seed long distances in their gut
      - Seed is delivered unharmed in a pile of nutritious excrement
      - Fleshy fruit provides animals with nutrients
    - - Velcro
      - Catch on fur and hooves
      - Hooks
- - - - Independent Assortment
        
        During metaphase I & II
        
        Each Bivalent/Chromatid will be assorted into each gamete at random
      - Crossing Over
        
        During Prophase I
        
        Each homologous pair exchange genes at random creating brand new combinations
  - - - Each individual has a genotype
        
        Each genotype is made up of alleles
        
        Alleles code for phenotypes
      - Allele types
        
        Heterozygous
        
        1 gene is dominant and has discernible effects
        
        1gene is recessive and has no discernible effect
        
        Homozygous
        
        Both genes are the same
    - - Alleles are segregated during meiosis
      - 1 allele from each parent is inherited
    - - Each gene pair that is not homologous segregates independently of the other gene pairs
    - - Polygenic Inheritance
        
        Multiple genes code for one phenotype, the phenotype has the combined effect of each gene
      - Epistasis
        
        One gene interacts with another in different ways such as masking the effect
      - No Crossing Over
        
        Alleles fail to cross over, resulting in half the possible genotypes
      - Linkage
        
        Genotypes are not produced in equal numbers
      - Mutation
        
        Genetic material is changed either at a single nucleotide (point mutation), or on a chromosomal level (Deletion, Duplication, Inversion, Translocation, and Transposition
      - Pleiotropy
        
        A single gene has multiple effects on the phenotype
      - Multiple Alleles
        
        Multiple alleles code for the same thing, some more dominant than others
      - Polyploidy
        
        The genetic material has more than 2 homologous genes
      - Incomplete Dominance
        
        Phenotype is intermediate of it's parental phenotypes
  - - - No Migration
      - Large Population
      - No Mutation
      - Random Mating
      - No Selection
    - - Phenotype: P+Q=1
      - Genotype: (P^2)+2PQ+(Q^2)
    - - Variables
        
        r= intrinsic growth rate
        
        K= Carrying capacity
        
        N= Number of individuals
      - Growth Models
        
        Exponential Growth
        
        dN/dt=rN
        
        Logistic Growth
        
        dN/dt=rN((K-N)/K) OR dN/dt=rN(1-N/K)
        
        r and k selected species
        
        r selected have exponential growth with many deaths
        
        k selected have slower growth with less deaths
    - - Variables
        
        X
        
        Age
        
        N(x)
        
        Number of individuals alive at age x
        
        S(x)
        
        Proportion of individuals of age x to survive to age x+1 ( N(x+1)/N(x) )
        
        I(x)
        
        Proportion of individuals that survive from birth to age x ( N(x)/N(0) )
        
        F(x)
        
        Average number of offspring born to a female while she is age x
        
        I(x)*F(x)
        
        Average number of offspring per capita at age x
        
        I(x)F(x)x
        
        Average number of offspring per capita at time x, weighted by age x
        
        R(0)
        
        Net reproductive rate calculated by taking the sum of column I(x)*F(x)
        
        G
        
        Mean generation time calculated by taking the sum of column I(x)F(x)x and dividing by R(0)
        
        r
        
        Intrinsic growth rate calculated by taking the natural log of R(0) and then dividing by G
- - - - Protein Complex I
        
        Q
      - Protein Complex II
      - Protein Complex III
        
        Cytochrome C
      - Protein Complex IV
        
        O
        
        H2O
      - ATP Synthase
    - - C6H12O6 (Alpha Glucose)
        
        C6
        
        C6
        
        ADP
        
        C3 (G3P)
        
        NADH
        
        C3
        
        ATP
        
        C3
        
        1 more item...
        
        C3 (G3P)
        
        C3
        
        ADP
        
        1 more item...
        
        ATP
        
        C3
        
        1 more item...
        
        NADH
        
        ATP
        
        ADP
    - - 3C (Pyruvate)
        
        CO2
        
        2C (Acetyl CoA)
        
        C6 (Citrate)
        
        C6 (Cis-Aconitate)
        
        C6 (Isocitrate)
        
        C5 (alpha-Ketoglutarate)
        
        3 more items...
        
        CO2
        
        NADH
        
        H2O
        
        NADH
    - - FAD (Flavin Adenine Dinucleotide)
        
        Vitamin B 2, also known as Riboflavin, helps to build FAD
        
        Weaker proton motive force compared to NADH
        
        Reduces to FADH2
      - NAD+ (Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide)
        
        Reduces to NADH
        
        Vitamin Niacin helps to build NAD+
        
        Can be converted to NADP
        
        Stronger proton motive force than FADH2
      - ATP
  - - - Antennal Complexes
        
        Reaction Center
        
        Specialized Chlorophyl A that uses the light energy to move electrons
        
        Transmit light energy to the reaction center
      - Pigments
        
        Chlorophyl B
        
        Second most abundant pigment
        
        Peak absorbance: 450 nm - 650 nm
        
        Accesory pigments
        
        Carotenoids
        
        Beta Carotene
        
        Chlorophyll A
        
        Most abundant pigment
        
        Peak absorbance: 430 nm - 660 nm
      - Photosystem I
        
        More Chlorophyll A than Chlorophyll B
        
        Peak absorbance: P700
      - Photosystem II
        
        More Chlorophyll B than Chlorophyll A
        
        Peak absorbance: P680
        
        Also the site of hydrolysis in the Oxygen Evolving Complex
      - NADPH
        
        Sulphur bacteria beginnings
        
        More powerful energy courier than ATP
      - Ribulose1-5 Bisphosphate Carboxylase/Oxygenase (RuBisCO)
        
        Can catalyze CO2 or O2, O2 is bad
        
        Possibly most common protein
    - - Thylakoid Reaction (Light Reactions)
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        Cyclic Photophosphorylation
        
        Non-cyclic Photophosphorylation
        
        Thylakoid Inner Membrane
        
        Thylakoid Outer Membrane
        
        Photolysis
        
        Light energy is used to split water
        
        Oxygen and Protons released
        
        Oxygen Evolving Complex
      - Stromal Reaction (Dark reactions, Calvin-Benson-Bassham)
        
        RuBisCO
        
        RuBisCO+CO2+RuBP
        
        C3 (PGA)
        
        C3
        
        C3 (G3P, PGAL)
        
        5 more items...
        
        NADP+
        
        ADP
        
        C3 (PGA)
        
        C3
        
        C3 (G3P, PGAL)
        
        1 more item...
        
        NADP+
        
        ADP
        
        Fixation
        
        Regeneration
        
        Reduction
- - - - Outer Membrane: Contains the rest of the Mitochondria
      - Inner Membrane: the inner-most membrane, the Electron Transport Chain occurs here
      - Intermembrane Space: Space between the two membranes that holds a proton gradient to power ATP production
      - Cristae: Folds in the inner membrane
      - Matrix: Fluid inside the inner membrane, the Citric Acid Cycle occurs here
  - - - Thylakoid: Disc shaped compartment that houses the light-dependent reactions of photosynthesis
      - Lumen: Space inside the Thylakoid
      - Stroma: Fluid inside the Inner Membrane
      - Granum: A stack of Thylakoids
      - Thylakoid Membrane: Membrane of the Thylakoid, with chlorophyll embedded in it
      - Lamella: Structure bridging the gap between two Thylakoids that are in separate Grana
      - Inner Membrane: Inner-most membrane
      - Outer Membrane: Contains the rest of the Chloroplast
      - Intermembrane Space: Space between the two membranes
- - - - Symmetry
        
        Actinomorphic
        
        Radial symmetry
        
        Zygomorphic
        
        Irregular Symmetry
        
        Bilateral Symmetry
    - - Diurnal
      - Nocturnal
    - - Signals pollinators
      - Sexual pheromones can be used
    - - Pollen
      - Oil
      - Nectar
    - - Requires resources
      - Can even be in UV
      - Attractive colors attract pollinators
  - - - Anemophily (wind)
        
        Large amounts of pollen
        
        Smooth, easily airborne pollen
        
        Stigmas and Stamens exposed to air currents
        
        Stigma feathery in order to catch pollen
        
        Most lack petals
        
        Small
        
        No odors, colors or nectar required
      - Hydrophily (water)
        
        Small flowers
        
        Long filaments for pollen transport on surface
        
        Copious pollen
        
        Oblong, heavier pollen for submarine transport
    - - Melittophily (Bees)
        
        Bright blue, yellow, or UV petals (bees cannot see red)
        
        Full of nectar
        
        Sweet or minty aromas
        
        Open in daytime
        
        Provide a landing platform
        
        Often bilateral symmetry
        
        Often tubular with nectar at base of tube
      - Psychophily (Butterflies)
        
        Bright reds, yellows, and oranges
        
        Open in daytime
        
        In clusters with landing platforms
        
        Ample nectar that is hidden
        
        May be clusters of small flowers
      - Phalenophily (Moths)
        
        Open in nighttime
        
        Heavily scented
        
        White
        
        Tubular corolla
      - Myophily/Sapromyophily (Flies)
        
        Pale and dull to dark brown and purple
        
        Putrid odors like carrion, rotting meat, dung, blood, humus, or sap
        
        Produce pollen
        
        Flowers are funnel like or complex traps
        
        Saprophily is for carrion mimics
      - Ornithophily (Birds)
        
        Tubular with petals curved out of the way
        
        Tubes, funnels, and cups
        
        Strong supports for perching
        
        Bright reds, yellows, and oranges
        
        Odorless (birds have poor sense of smell)
        
        Open in daytime
        
        Nectar deeply hidden
        
        Pollen producers dust the birds head and back with pollen
      - Chiropterophily (Bats)
        
        Open in nighttime
        
        Large in size
        
        Pale or white
        
        Very fragrant like fruit or fermentation
        
        Copious dilute nectar
      - Cantharophily (Beetles)
        
        Bowl shaped
        
        White, dull white, or green
        
        Strongly fruity
        
        Open in daytime
        
        Moderate nectar producers
        
        May be large solitary flowers or small clusters of flowers
      - Deception
        
        Uses trickery
        
        Often does not offer a reward
        
        May look or smell like the pollinator
        
        Saprophily is included
- - - - Can also be modeled with Lotka-Voltera models
        
        dN/dt=rN-aNP
        
        N
        
        Number of prey individuals
        
        t
        
        Time
        
        r
        
        Intrinsic growth rate for prey
        
        a
        
        Predator's per capita attack rate (number of prey eaten per predator per unit of time)
        
        P
        
        Number of predator individuals
        
        dN/dt=faNP-qP
        
        f
        
        Constant indicating the efficiency at which predators convert energy from prey into making new predators
        
        q
        
        Predator's per capita mortality rate
      - Can be modeled with growth models from population genetics
- - - - Merchantiophytes (Liverwort)
        
        Bryophytes (Mosses)
        
        Lycophytes (Selaginella)
        
        Monilophytes (Polypod Ferns)
        
        Gymnosperms (Cone-Bearers)
        
        Angiosperms (Flowering Plants)
        
        2 more items...
        
        Structure
        
        2 more items...
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Structure
        
        Sporophyte
        
        1 more item...
        
        Gametophyte
        
        2 more items...
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        Sporophyte Embryo (2n)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Sporophyte dominant, Gametophyte reduced
        
        Structure
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Megasporangium
        
        1 more item...
        
        Microsporangium
        
        1 more item...
        
        Gametophyte
        
        Megagametophyte
        
        1 more item...
        
        Microgametophyte
        
        1 more item...
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        Sporophyte Embryo (2n)
        
        Sporophyte (2n)
        
        4 more items...
        
        Structure
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Sporangium
        
        Sporocytes
        
        1 more item...
        
        Gametophyte
        
        Archegonial head
        
        Archegonia
        
        1 more item...
        
        Antheridial Head
        
        Antheridia
        
        1 more item...
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        Sporophyte Embryo (2n)
        
        Sporophyte (2n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        1 more item...
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Sporophytes and Gametophytes become independent, Sporophytes are larger and considered dominant
        
        Zygote (2n)
        
        Sporophyte Embryo (2n)
        
        Sporophyte (2n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Gametophyte (1n)
        
        2 more items...
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Spore (1n)
        
        Structure
        
        Sporophyte
        
        Sporangium
        
        Sporocytes
        
        Spores
        
        Gametophyte
        
        Archegoniophores
        
        Archegonia
        
        Egg
        
        Antheridiophores
        
        Antheridia
        
        Sprem
      - Structure
        
        Similar to present day species cell structure
      - Zygote (2n)
        
        Spore (n)
        
        Spore (n)
        
        Spore (n)
        
        Multicellular Haploid Organism (n)
        
        Egg
        
        Sperm
        
        Spore (n)
      - Antithetic (or Interpolation) Theory suggests that the sporophyte stage is inserted into the lifecycle of the algae to produce the land plant lifecycle
    - - Bacteria secrete mucilage to stick together and collect sediment, forming solid layers
      - Mats of photosynthetic bacteria
- - - - O2
      - H+
        
        H+
- - - - RC
        
        Pheophytin
        
        QA
        
        Qa
        
        Plastoquinone Pool
        
        Cytochrome-b6f
        
        1 more item...
        
        H+
        
        1 more item...
- - - - RC
        
        Chlorophyl A0
        
        Iron-Sulphur Proteins
        
        Ferrodoxin
        
        NADPH
        
        NADPH
        
        1 more item...
        
        NADPH
        
        1 more item...
- - - - RC
- - - - RC
- - - - e-
        
        Cyclic
        
        Non-Cyclic
- - - - Sclerenchyma
        
        Bundle Sheath (Fiber Cells)
- - - - Phloem Fibers/ Bundle Cap