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Metalanguage - Coggle Diagram
Metalanguage
Syntax - Sentence Structure
Definitions
Phrase - A group of words smaller than a clause that behaves like a single structural unit. eg: noun phrase 'Cool stick'
Sentence - String of words with at least a verb and a subject, ending in a full stop
Clause - Sentence unit that can make up a sentence by itself or in conjunction with other clauses with a verb and a predicate
Independent/Coordinating - Makes sense on it's own. eg: 'I eat cake'
Dependent/Subordinating - Relies on an independent/coordinating clause. eg: in 'I eat cake because I like it' 'I like it' is subordinating as it does not make sense on its own
Predicate - a subsequent description for the subject of a clause containing the verb. eg: the predicate in 'John is Yellow' is 'is yellow'
Sentence Structures
Complex - One coordinating and one subordinating. eg: i eat cake cos its yummy
Compound complex - 2+ coordinating conjunction and 1+ subordinating conjunction. eg: i eat cake and I drink coffee because it is delicious
Compound - Two coordinating conjunctions. eg: I eat cake and I drink Coffee
Sentence Fragments - Phrase without subject or predicate. eg 'eat cake'
Simple - One single coordinating clause. eg: 'I eat cake'
Sentence Types
Declarative - Declares something. eg "i eat cake"
Interrogative - A question. eg" Do you eat cake?"
Exclamative - Exclaims something. eg: "What a cake!"
Imperative - An instruction. eg: "Go eat cake"
Features
Nominalisation - Turns phrase to a noun phrase. eg: "the car that drives" to "The driving car"
Ellipses - Removal of words from a phrase or sentence. eg: "call? instead of "Do you want to call?"
Voice
Active - Agent acts as subject and patient acts as object. eg: Fred eats the cake"
Passive - Agent acts as object and patient acts as subject. eg: "The cake was eaten by Fred"
Agentless Passive - Passive voice with no Agent. eg: "The cake was eaten"
Syntactic Patterning
Antithesis - Parallelism that utilises antonymy. eg: "many are called but few are chosen"
Parallelism - Using similar gramitical structures in phrases or clauses. eg: "The sun rises, the sun sets"
Listing - Using a list
Phonetics and Phonology - Sound Patterns in Language
Prosodic Features
Pitch - How high or low something is said
Tempo - How quickly someone is speaking
Volume - How loud someone is speaking/ how loud a phrase is said
Intonation - Patterns of changing pitch in a n utterance
Stress - How loud, emphasised or long a sylabble or word is said
Vocal Effects - Non-language noises made during speech such as coughing, laughing, breathing etc.
May hold meaning, may be non-fluency feature
Connected Speech Processes
Vowel Reduction - Omission of non-stressed vowels. eg: 'Library' to 'Libry'
Elision - Omission of sounds in connected speech. eg: 'Fish 'n' chips'
Assimilation - Altering a sound so that it is more similar to the following sound. eg: 'Sandwhich' to 'Samwhich'
Insertion - Insertion of sounds into words. eg: 'drawing' to 'draw-ring'
Australian Accents
Broad - The stereotypical 'Lower class' regional Australian accent. Now used by a minority of Australians
General - The accent used by the majority of Australians
Cultivated - Fancy 'Higher Class' Australian accent, characterised by its likeness to a British accent or 'the Queen's English'
Phonological Patterning
Assonance - Repetition of the same vowel sounds in consecutive words. eg: 'get better'
Consonance - Repetition of the same consonants in consecutive words. eg: 'white gate'
Alliteration - Consecutive words starting with the same letter. eg: 'Flying Fox'
Onomatopoeia - A word that is pronounced like its associated sound. eg: 'splash'
Rhythm - The regular reoccurrence of stresses or prominent units in speech
Rhyme - use of consecutive rhyming words
Discourse - Sequences of language longer than a sentence
Code switching - Switching between languages or dialects
Coherence - The semantic connections within a text that make it make sense
Inference - Additional information assumed by readers, the speaker implies what the readers infer
Logical Ordering - ordering that makes sense and helps readers understand the text. eg: Chronological ordering
Formatting - elements that format the text. eg: title, opening and ending phrases, salutations
Consistency - Keeping elements of the text consistent
Cohesion - The linguistic connections that exist between words and sentences to give structure to a text
Lexical choice
Synonymy - Using synonyms. eg: dad and father
Antonymy - using antonyms. eg: happy and sad
Hyponymy - Hyponyms fall under a larger hypernym. eg: cat, dog and horse are hyponyms under the animal hypernym
Anaphoric Reference - Refering to something with a pronoun after previously mentioning it by name. eg: Selena was at the park, she was feeling unwell
Cataphoric reference - Referring to something with a pronoun before mentioning it by name. eg: She's approaching the finish line.. and Sarah wins the race!
Collocation - words that commonly go together. eg: time after time
Ellipsis - Omitting parts of a phrase. eg: cake? instead of do you want cake?
Substitution - Substituting a single word for a noun phrase. eg: do you have a pencil?, yeah i have ONE
Conjunctions and adverbials - to show relationships between words and phrases.(Adverbials are groups of words that give information on a verb. eg: he went outside DESPITE THE RAIN
Features of spoken discourse
Openings and Closings - 'Hello' and 'Goodbye', 'Dear' and 'Kind regards'
Adjacency Pairs - Statements and responses that commonly go together. eg: "how are you?" "Not bad" or "I'm sorry", "all good"
Overlapping Speech - Speakers speaking at the same time (Indicated with [ ])
Interrogative tags - Question of confirmation at the end of a statement. eg: that was good, wasn't it?
Discourse Particles - Small features of discourse that have the function of expressing a social relationships or and/or turn taking. eg: y'know, well, yeah-nah
Topic Management
Turn-taking - alternating speech between multiple speakers
Floor holding - Extending your turn in conversation
Passing the floor - Giving the turn to the other person to speak
Minimal response/Back channeling - Words listeners use while the other person is speaking to indicate their attention. eg: Mmm, yeah, ok
Non-fluency Features
Pauses
Filled Pauses - Vocally pausing with words like 'umm' 'errr'
False starts - Restarting shortly into a sentence. eg: i went, i went to the shops
Repetition - repeating words without intended effect. eg: the, the umm, the thing
Repairs - Changing a sentence shortly into it. eg: I was- when we were over there i was...
Morphology and Lexicology -
Morphology: Structure of words
Lexicology: Vocabulary
Word Classes
Noun - Object. eg: Chair
Verb - Action. eg: you RUN
Auxiliary verb - a verb preceding the main verb. eg: i HAD to go
Modal verb - gives a probability of a verb occurring. eg: i WILL go
Adjective - Describing word. eg COOL chair
Preposition - a word giving a time or place to an action or object. eg: the chair is UNDER the table
Pronoun - Used in place of a noun. eg: him, her, them
Conjunctions - link clauses together. eg: and, while, because
Subordinating - Links a dependent and independent clause. eg: i run BECAUSE I enjoy it
Coordinating - Links two independent clauses. eg: I run AND i sit down
Determiner - a word indicating an upcoming noun. eg: THE chair
Interjection - a word that stands by itself outside of a clause. eg: WOW!
Affixation
Prefix - comes before a word. eg: ANTIclockwise
Suffix - Comes after a word. eg: sadNESS
Infix - inserted into a word. eg: absoBLOODYlutely
Derivational - Changes the meaning of the word. eg: UNhappy
Inflectional - Changes only a grammatical aspect of a word (tense, possession, plural). eg: combED
Morpheme - The smallest language unit
Bound - Appear only as parts of words. eg: creaTION
Root Morpheme - The main free morpheme. eg: RUNner
Free morpheme - can function independently as words. eg: fly
Creative Word Formation Processes
Blend - parts of words coming together to form a single word. eg: robodebt (From robot and debt)
Acronym - letters being used in place of words to form a pronounceable word. eg: GOAT
Initialism - letters being used in place of words in which the letters themselves are pronounced. eg: MCG
Shortening - a word being shortened. eg: examination to exam
Compounding - the combination of twp free morphemes to form a single word. eg: ice cream
Contraction - replacing part of a word with an apostrophe. eg: didn't
Collocation - words that commonly go together. eg: time after time
Neologism - A newly coined word. eg: rizz
Non-subsystem metalanguage
Analysing Texts
Register - How formal a text is. eg: Informal or Predominantly formal
Social Purpose - The underlying purpose of a text
Formal Texts
To celebrate/commerate
To clarify/obfuscate/manipulate
To manage face needs
To Promote in-group Solidarity
To establish expertise
To reinforce authority
To promote Social Harmony
Informal Texts
To encourage intimacy/equality/solidarity
To manage face needs
To promote linguistic innovation
To support in-group membership
Situational Context
Domain - what is the text about?
Audience/participants - who is listening/participating? How will this influence language choice?
Mode - How is the text conveyed. eg: written, spoken
Social and Cultural context - Are there any cultural or social expectations where the text is taking place? How will these influence language choice?
Function - What a text is primarily doing. eg: Entertaining, instructing, persuading
Identity/Social Relationships
Prestige
Covert - Prestige that is only awarded in particular groups associated with the language used. eg: Using initialisms like 'tbh' with teenagers
Overt - Generally accepted and awarded prestige. eg: Speaking standard AusE in Australia
Face needs
Positive Face - A person's need to feel respected. eg: a compliment maintains a persons positive face needs
Negative Face - A person's need to feel as if they act autonomously. eg: saying please removes a sense of instruction hence maintaining a person's negative face needs
Language
PC Language - Avoidance of language that would offend marginalised groups. eg: Referring to a non-binary person using they/them pronouns
Slang - Colloquialisms used by in-group members. eg: 'Tradie' in Australia
Jargon - hyper-specific language used by groups with particular hobbies or professions. eg: 'kickflip' or 'stethoscope'
Taboo language - Words or phrases considered inappropriate in most contexts
Expletives - Swear words
Rhetoric - Involves persuasive techniques
Dialects
Ethnolects - Non-standard varieties that a are specific to a certain ethnic group. eg: LebSpeak, specific to Lebanese people in Australia
Idiolects - Refers to the lexicon of an individual based on their identity
Sociolect - refers to varieties used by groups of people based on their social status. eg: High class or Low class
Standard English - The official 'standard' dictionary and grammatically defined English
Non-Standard English - All other varieties of English including a majority of idiolects and ethnolects etc
Semantics - Linguistic Meaning
Features
Semantic Field/Domain - The umbrella topic that speech or lexemes may lie under. eg: 'cake' and ;flour' fall under the semantic field of 'baking'
Denotation - The official denoted meaning/definition of a word
Connotation - The emotional meaning that arise from peoples differing beliefs and/or experiences. eg: 'to urinate' has the same denotation but different connotations to 'to piss'
Dysphemism - Use of intentionally insensitive language. eg: 'They have passed away' (euphemism) compared to 'They carked it' (dysphemism)
Euphemism - Opposite of dysphemism, more commonly used. Either to obfuscate information or to save face while speaking on taboo topics.
Semantic Patterning
Oxymoron - A phrase that combines contradictory terms. eg: 'the big little house'
Simile - A figurative expression comparing one thing with another. eg 'he runs, jumps and sores through the air like an eagle'
Metaphor - Non-literal use of language. eg: 'Emerald eyes'
Personification - Attributing human qualities to something non-human. eg: 'the sun lept up'
Irony - When language is intended to have the opposite meaning or is opposing to what is actually occurring or has occurred. eg: The titanic is '100% unsinkable'
Puns - Word play utilising the different meaning but similar sounds of words
Lexical Ambiguity - An expression with more than one meaning that gives rise to ambiguity