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41. THE ROMANIZATION. INFLUENCE OF LATIN ON THE ENGLISH LANGUAGE. LOAN…

- - - - OE
        
        Earliest form of Eng lang. Spoken in AS Britain approx. 450-1150 (though period normally said to end 1066)
        
        During this time - many changes, evolutions & influences from Romans, Scandis & Celts, ESP in vocab & grammar. ONLY 3037 (approx 3m words) remain but it's enough
        
        As unit is all about Roman influence it naturally focuses more on OE period. Intro of loan words/adaptations & extension of resources of Eng vocab
- - - - 1st inhabitants of GB.
        
        Collection of tribes with origins in central Europe. Shared similar lang/rel beliefs/traditions/culture
        
        Spread through Europe via migration. Arrived in England 4/5C BC.
        
        Traces of LEGACY still visible today eg place names = Kent, Avon, Devon, Cornwall, York, Thames, Dover....
        
        Spoke dialects of Celtic langs, primarily 1) Gaelic (origin of actual Irish & Scots Gaelic) 2) Britannic (origin of Briton & actual Welsh)
    - - 1st BC - military campaign vs Celts. Destroyed much of culture in mainland Europe.
        
        55BC Julius Cesar invaded but unsuccessful.
        
        AD 43 Emperor Claudius tried again. Some resistance esp from Scots (so Hadrian's Wall) but ultimately SUCCESSFUL
        
        1st Military conquest, 2nd Romanization. Big impact on infrastructure & land & culture & LANG (examine all later)
        
        AD 410 COLLAPSE of Empire, withdrawal from GB
    - - Mix of Saxons/Angles/Jutes from area that's now Germany/Denmark
        
        WHERE?
        
        THEORIES 1) invited by Britons to help protect vs Viking raids; 2) forced to migrate due to flooding
        
        Saxons → Sussex, Wessex, Middlesex; Angles → East Anglia & north of Humber; Jutes → Kent & Isle of White
        
        Saxons gradually moved westwards & northwards (though western seaboard (Wales, Cumbria, Cornwall) remain British strongholds for considerable time)
        
        ASs spoke lang we know as OE (hence dating). Fairly uniform BUT lack of cohesion between 7 small kingdoms → dialects. Main ones = Northumbrian, Mercian, West Saxon, Kentish
        
        CHRISTIANIZATION OF BRITAIN
        
        ASs = pagans. 596 Pope Gregory the Great sent Italian monk Augustine → convert King Æthelberht of Kent → Christianity.
        
        (Not 1st attempt. Tried during Roman times but cut short by Germanic invasion)
        
        In 597 TRICKY. Germanic culture = bravery, revenge, loyalty. Christianity = meekness, patience, suffering.
        
        BUT 2 factors in FAVOUR
        
        2 more items...
    - - In 8/9Cs. Constant threat of plunder, followed by actual settlement
        
        1st recorded raid 789 in Wessex. Then 793 Lindisfarne (off north east coast, imp. monastery)
        
        Raids for several decades. Then from 835 confrontations with armies. 865 - huge army arrived East Anglia. By 871 - Vikings had conquered Northumbria, East Ang & Mercia.
        
        Had profound influence on Eng culture. (Place names, huge increase in cities eg York). ALSO, when sons of King Alfred later recaptured the northern/eastern territories they established ENGLALOND
- - - - Roads A2, A5
      - Landscape
        
        Cities: More than 40! Leeds, Bath, Lincoln, Newcastle, Exeter....
        
        Waterways: system of rivers & canals
        
        Plumbing & Sanitation: aqueducts drains etc. Underfloor heating!
        
        Architecture: houses, theatres, bath house
      - Culture
        
        Calendar: 365 days plus leap each 4 yrs. Also the MONTHS (July, August)
        
        Currency: brought coins in from empire. Truly a global currency!
        
        Food: Introduced many staples eg apples, peas, pears, cucumber, celery, lentils, pine nuts, almonds, coriander .. over 50 new foods! Also concept of 'fast food' in the form of street stalls
        
        Games / gambling
      - LATIN
        
        PROFOUND impact on Eng lang
        
        BUT when Romans left 410AD only permanent linguistic sign of presence was some place names of major settlements
        
        Chester, Manc, Chichester etc
    - - Impact felt ALL the way up to Hadrian´s Wall (itself a testament to impact on landscape
- - - - Normans quickly took control of territory. All important positions were dominated by Fr speaking Normans
  - - - OE LOST most of its inflectional endings & WORD ORDER became primary means of expression (SVO took hold)
        
        This is a HUGE CHANGE. Major grammatical/changes of inflections/word order etc do NOT occur frequently in the history of a lang! Led to ME (rightly dignified with a different name).
- - - - A process which adopts linguistic material from another lang - realised by means of loanwords & calques
        
        Borrowing & loan are the same: words which are borrowed with their spelling, pronunciation & meaning. THEN they undergo assimilation: each sound in th borrowed word is substituted by the corresponding sound in the borrowing lang. Spelling/structure/meaning can also change, & stress is influenced by phonetics of borrowing lang.
    - - EG: 'to take the bull by its horns' (Latin), 'fair sex' (French), 'living space' (Germany).
        
        Some already found in OE eg 'Solis dies' (Sunday) & 'Lunae dies' (Monday)
    - - 1) Completely assimilated: Not felt as foreign words. Verbs belong to regular verbs eg correct/corrected. Nouns form plural with s inflection eg gate/gates. Many belong to native word stock of Eng: eg cheese/street (Latin), to die/to take (Scandi), Table (French)
      - Partly assimilated. Classified into: a) Non-assimilated semantically as denote objects/notions peculiar to original land & culture eg sari (?). b) Non assimilated grammatically: eg nouns from Latin/Greek which retain plural form: phenomenon/phenomena , datum/data etc. c) Non assimilated phonetically - words with initial sound /v/ & /z/. In native words these voiced consonants are only used in the intervocal position as allophones of sounds /s/ & /f/ eg loss/lose
        
        3. Non assimilated borrowings (barbarisms) eg tete-a-tete, homme/femme (French), dolce vita (Italian)
  - - - a) Zero period (aka Continental Borrowing)
        
        From contact between Roman/Germanic tribes on the continent (to the lang that would later evolve to be OE).
        
        Important: no written records. We know about borrowings from analysis of sound changes
        
        Est. to be 170
        borrowings, related to main activities of tribes:
        
        WAR: 'pytt' (pit) or 'camp' (battle) from L campus. 'Street' from L strata and 'mil' from mile.
        
        TRADE: Germanic tribes traded amber, slaves etc for Roman handcrafts . 'ceap' (bargain), 'pund (pound) from pondus. 'Win' (wine) from vinum.
        
        DOMESTIC LIFE: 'mese' (table), 'teped' (carpet) from tapetum. 'Ciese' (cheese) from caesus
      - b) The 1st Period (aka Latin influence through Celtic transmission)
        
        Minimal influence. Due to Romanization, Latin became the official lang of military & office class AND adopted lang of urban/upper class natives. BUT Celtic lang still used for everyday life & use of Latin not widespread enough to enable it to survive the Germanic invasions
        
        Germanic tribes acquired a couple of L words upon arrival - 'ceaster' (camp) from L 'castra' (town/enclosed community) (Lancaster/Gloucester etc). Also: 'port' (harbour) from portius, 'munt' (mountain) from montis & wic (village) from 'vicus'. Came from Celtic transmission - NO direct contact here between Latin/OE
      - c) 2nd Period (aka Christianization of Britain)
        
        Intro of Christianity 597 resulted in greatest influence
        
        It meant: building of churches & monasteries. Re-intro of Latin as lang of mass & ecclesiastical learning. Est. of schools (in monasteries/churches) where poetry/astronomy/arithmetic/Greek/Latin etc were taught. Venerable Bede 'The Ecclesiastical History of the Engl Ppl' 731
        
        From 597 to end OE period = almost 500 yrs! Borrowings divided into early & late
        
        EARLIER BORROWINGS (7thC)
        
        Proved by appearance in lit. by time of King Alfred
        
        RELIGION: abbot, nun, relic, angel, priest. DOMESTIC LIFE (church had big impact on ordinary lives). Clothes: cap, sock, purple, silk. Food: lentil, oyster, cook. Trees/plants: plant, pine, balsam. Edu: school master, grammar, metre...
        
        LATER BORROWINGS (10th/11th Cs)
        
        Works of more learned character (& less popular) due to rel. revival & Benedictine Reform
        
        BENEDICTINE REFORM: From 798 Viking raids destroyed churches & monasteries. Result: decline in learning and thfore Latin lang. Alfred the Great led a revival of monasticism (aka BRef). General moral reformation as well as improvements in edu & learning.
        
        New borrowings: REL: cloister, idol, prophet, mass, candle. LITERARY: accent, decline, history, title. **LEARNED: *plants: coriander, ginger,* trees:* fig, laurel, medicine: cancer, paralysis,* animals*: camel, scorpion. Plus some non assimilated: catacumbas, basilica.*
        
        1 more item...
- - - - EG: genius, infancy, inferior, lunatic, necessary, summary, index. Poets also introduced some other unusual words.
        
        Simultaneous borrowings led to synonyms at 3 levels: ENG (popular) eg ask/holy, FRENCH (literary) eg question/sacred, LATIN (learned) eg interrogate/consecrated
- - - - Words inc: absurdity, adapt, assassinate, climax, crisis, emphasis, exact, expensive, impersonal, insane, skeleton, virus...
        
        AND Eng could coin new words using prefixes & suffixes
        
        Prefixes: auto (automated), circum (circumnavigate), co (coedit), ex (expert), extra (extraordinary), micro (microscopic), mini (miniature), non (nonconformist). semi (semicircle), super (superpower) trans (transfer), vice (vice-president)
        
        Suffixes: al (territorial), an (African) arian (parliamentarian), any (merchant), ary (imaginary) cracy (democracy), ify (justify), ory (obligatory)
      - SPELLING - In 17C – passion for classical languages led many to ‘insert’ new letters, to make the word closer aligned with Latin. Eg – b was inserted inti debt, doubt, p into receipt, s into island, c into scissors etc.
- - - - Spanish & Gal. romance langs. Students can find vocab & cultural similarities between the 2 langs. Can help strengthen feelings of shared European dimension & identity (esp imp. post Brexit).
      - CAREFUL: sometimes meanings changed and there are false friends (constipado/constipated) & other times the L words are more learned/restricted than Eng equivalent (to elaborate vs to make). Necessary thefr to teach awareness of different registers.
- - - - Latin influence marks the real beginning of the Eng habit of freely incorporating foreign elements into its vocab. Now, 75% of words in Eng are borrowed!
      - Most English grammar rules are based in Latin