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GENERAL CHEMISTRY 2387545, System is the object we are interested in.,…

- - - - All Matter
        
        Mixture
        
        Heterogenous
        
        Homogenous
        
        Pure Substance
        
        Compound
        
        Element
    - - Chemical Formula
      - Structural Formula
      - Ball and Stick model
      - Space-filling model
    - - Law of Mass Conservation
    - - Isotopes
        
        Relative atomic mass
      - Element Classification
        
        Metallic
        
        Metalloid
        
        Nonmetal
      - Bonds
        
        Ionic bond
        
        Polyatomic Ion
        
        Molecular bond
        
        Hydrocarbon
        
        Binary Compound
        
        How to name compund
      - Parts of periodic table element
        
        Element Name
        
        Atomic Number
        
        Atomic Mass
        
        Symbol
      - Periodic Table
- - - - enthalphy diagram
        
        a graphical construction that depicts the energy relationships among the alternative
        pathways for the same overall reaction
      - Hess's law
        
        the value of ∆H0 for any reaction that can be written in steps equals the sum of the values of ∆H0 each of the individual steps.
      - Rules for manipulating thermochemical equation
        
        When an equation is reversed, the sign of ΔH⁰ must also be reversed
        
        Formulas canceled from both sides of an equation must be for the substance in identical physical states
        
        If all the coefficient of an equation are multiplied or divided by the same factor, the value of ΔH⁰ must likewise be multiplied or divided by that factor
      - ∆H0 is is the value of ∆H for a reaction occurring under standard conditions
      - Thermochemical equation is an equation that also shows the value of ∆H0
    - - Standard heat of combustion
        
        is the amount of heat released when one molecule of a fuel substance is completely burned in pure oxygen gas, with all reactants and products brought to 25 °C and 1 bar of pressure
      - Standard enthalpy of formation
        
        is the amount of heat absorbed or evolved when specifically one mole of the substance is formed at 25 °C and 1 bar from its elements in their standard states
    - - energy
        
        kinetic energy
        
        depends on mass and velocity
        
        moving
        
        potential energy
        
        stored energy
        
        chemical potential energy
        
        makes an object able to do work
      - thermodynamics, the study of energy transfer and energy transformation
    - - unit of energy id joule (J)
      - the amount of energy needed to warm 1 gram of water by 1 degree celsius is calorie. 1cal=4.148 J
      - temperature
      - internal energy
      - By measuring the amount of heat that is absorbed or released by an object we can study any type of energy transfer
      - 6
      - first law of thermodynamics: energy cannot be created or destroyed, it can only be changed from one form to another
      - energy of chemical reaction
        
        Chemical bond breaking requires energy, endothermic
        
        Chemical bond making releases energy, exothermic
      - heat
      - enthalphy= internal energy + pressure x volume
- - - - Definition
        
        Solvent
        
        Solute
        
        Solution
        
        Types
        
        Liquid
        
        Solid
        
        Gas
      - Type of Solubility
        
        Saturated
        
        Unsaturated
        
        Supersaturated
      - Properties of solutions
        
        Electrical conductivity
        
        Acidity and basicity
        
        Concentration
    - - Equations for ionic reactions
        
        Molecular equation
        
        Ionic equation
        
        Balanced ionic equation
        
        Electrical balance
        
        Material balance
      - Precipitation reaction
      - Dissociation reaction
    - - Acid
      - Base
      - Salt
      - Acid base reaction
      - Acid and base nomenclature
    - - Diluting solutions
    - - Acid base reaction
        
        Weak acid and strong base
        
        Weak acid and insoluble base
        
        Acid and weak base
        
        Strong acid with insoluble base
- - - - reactions involving electron transfer
        
        Oxidation
        
        loss of electrons (LEO: Loss Electrons Oxidation)
        
        increase in oxidation number
        
        Reduction
        
        gain of electrons (GER: Gain Electrons Reduction)
        
        decrease in oxidation number
      - Agents
        
        Reducing Agent
        
        oxidised substance
        
        Oxidising Agent
        
        reduced substance
    - - Half Reaction: Oxidation and reduction equations are separated and should follow the balanced ionic equation through the balance of atoms and charges.
        
        Acidic Solution
        
        1) Equation is separated into two individual half reactions.
        
        2) Excluding H and O atoms, other atoms should be balanced.
        
        3) Add H2O to balance O.
        
        4) Add H+ to balance H.
        
        5) Add e- to balance net charge.
        
        6) Sum the half equations after ensuring that the number of electrons gained is equivalent to the number of electrons lost.
        
        7) Any of the same substances in the equation should be cancelled out.
        
        Basic Solution
        
        Complete steps 1 to 7 based on that of the acidic solution.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Add OH- to balance out the H+.
        
        1 more item...
        
        Form H2O by adding OH- and H+.
        
        1 more item...
        
        The H2O present should be cancelled out as much as possible.
        
        1 more item...
    - - Oxidizing Acids
        
        Acids that have anions which are stronger oxidizing agents as compared to H3O+
        
        HNO3 and H2SO4
        
        net ionic equation: oxidising agent is the H+ of the acid
      - Nonoxidizing Acids
        
        The oxidising agent is H3O+ (poor oxidising agent), since the acid contain anions which are weaker oxidizing agents as compared to H3O+
        
        HCl(aq), H2SO4(aq), H3PO4(aq) and most organic acids
    - - Activity Series
        
        The more easily oxidised element can displace the less easily oxidized element from its compounds.
        
        (least easily oxidised, most easily reduced) Gold, Mercury, Silver, Copper, Hydrogen, Lead, Tin, Cobalt, Cadmium, Iron, Chromium, Zinc, Manganese, Aluminum, Magnesium, Sodium, Calcium, Strontium, Barium, Cesium, Potassium, Rubidium (most easily oxidized, least easily reduced)
    - - Balancing the quantities of reacting substances to ensure equilibrium of electrons transferred in the reaction
    - - Record of the number of electrons in an atom that is not always equivalent to the real charges on the molecules.
        
        1) Oxidation numbers sum up to the charge on the ion, molecule or formula unit.
        
        2) The zero oxidation number corresponds to atoms of free elements
        
        3) The +1, +2 and +3 oxidation numbers each corresponds to metals from group 1A, 2A and Al.
        
        4) The +1 and -1 oxidation numbers each corresponds to H and F in compounds.
        
        5) The oxidation number of oxygen is -2.
        
        6) The -1 oxidation number corresponds to elements in Group 7A.
        
        7) The -2 oxidation number corresponds to elements in Group 6A.
        
        8) The -3 oxidation number corresponds to elements in Group 5A.
        
        9) The former numbers should be prioritised upon the presence of any contradictions.
    - - Oxidation of organic/ hydrocarbon compound
        
        Reaction where carbon-based molecules lose electrons when reacting with a oxidizing agent
        
        Plenty of O2
        
        CH4 + 2O2 -> CO2 + 2H2O
        
        Limited O2
        
        2CH4 + 302- →2CO + 4H₂O
        
        Very Limited O2
        
        CH4+O2→ C + 2H₂O
      - Oxidation of metals with oxygen
        
        Corrosion or tarnishing
        
        2Mg + O2→2MgO
      - Reaction of nonmetals with oxygen
        
        Reaction of non metals are fast enough to cause combustion
- - - - Exothermic
    - - Lattice energy
      - Ground-state electron configuration
      - Shell
        
        Sub-Shell
      - Quantum mechanics
      - Electron cloud
      - Orbital
        
        s = sharp, can hold up to 2 electrons
        
        p = principal, can hold up to 6 electrons
        
        d = diffuse, can hold up to 10 electrons
        
        f = fundamental, can hold up to 14 electrons
      - Octet Rule
    - - :
    - - Type of bond
        
        Single bond
        
        Double bond
        
        Triple bond
    - - Polar bond
      - Nonpolar bond
      - Ionization Energy
      - Dipole moment
      - Reactivities of metals
      - Electronegativity
    - - Decide which atoms are bonded to each other
        
        Count all valence electrons.
        Add or remove e- to account for charge on ion
        
        Place two electrons in each bond
        
        Complete the octets of the atoms attached to the central atom by adding e in pair
        
        Place any remaining electrons on the central atom in pairs.
        
        if the central atom has less than an octet, form double bond. If nesseacary form triple bonds.
      - Formal charge
      - Coordinate covalent bond
      - Resonance structures
- - - - Moles = mass of sample/molar mass
    - - Mass of sample = moles x molar mass
    - - Avogrado's Constant = 6.02 x 10^23 atom/mol
        
        Number of atoms = mole x 6.02 x avogadro's constant
    - - average mass = molar mass (gmol-1) x mole :
    - - Moles of compound = (ratio of compound/ratio of element) x moles of element
    - - find moles of required element with ratio
        
        Calculate mass of element
    - - (mass of element/ total mass of compound) x 100%
    - - (mass of element/molecular mass) x 100%
        
        compare calculated % mass result with theoretical mass percentages
    - - Empirical = Smallest Ratio of Atoms in a Molecule
        
        Find Moles: Mass Data/Molecular Mass
        
        Simplify Moles Ratio between Elements to get Empirical Formula
    - - Use Mass Composition to find Moles Value of Every Element
        
        Simplify Moles Ratio Between Elements to get Empirical Formula
    - - Percentage composition = mass data in 100 grams of molecules
        
        Find the moles = mass data/ molecular mass
        
        Simplify moles ratio between elements to find empirical formula
    - - Calculate Moles amount from atoms each element
        
        Calculate Molecular Mass of Each Compound
        
        Find the mass of each element based on the molecular value of products
        
        Apply Law of Conservation of Mass to find the mass of other reactant
        
        Find moles amount from each element = calculated mass value/molecular mass
        
        Simplify ratio of moles value between elements to find empirical formula
    - - Find Coefficient Value of Every Element
        
        Molecular Mass of Molecule/(ratio of element 1 x Mr of element 1) + (ratio of element 2 x Mr of element 2)
        
        Coefficient value multiplied into subscript value of empirical formula to get molecular formula
    - - Identify which reactants or products that are not balanced
        
        Formulate calculations pattern with positive sign, negative sign, and arrow
        
        Modify coefficient values until both reactants and products side are equal
        
        Reaction is balanced based on the subscript and coefficient numbers that are added or reduced.
    - - Balance the Chemical Equation first
        
        Moles of Product = (Coefficient of Product/coefficient of reactant) x moles of reactant
        
        Identify which reactant has known moles value
    - - Use known Product Mass Value to find Moles amount of Product
        
        Find Moles of Reactant from Moles of Product
        
        Calculate Mass of Reactant from Moles Value of Reactant
    - - Balance the reaction
        
        Calculate Product Moles Value
        
        Calculate All Reactant Moles Value from Product Moles Value
        
        Calculate Mass Value = Moles x Molecular Mass
    - - Balance the reaction
        
        Identify Limiting Reactant = Moles / Coefficient of Compound
        
        Smallest Ratio = Limiting Reactant
        
        Use Limiting Reactant Moles Value to find Mass of Product
    - - Identify Limiting Reactant
        
        Find Moles of Compound (Product) from Moles value of Limiting Reactant
        
        Find Calculated Mass from Moles Value
        
        % Yield = (Actual Mass/Calculated Mass) X 100 %
- - - - (3) Acid salt
        
        NaH2PO4
      - Metal oxide
      - Molecular compound
      - Metal Hydroxides