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PT: Are we too quick assume that the most recent evidence is inevitably…

- - - - made up of data and observations carefully collected in a lab or in the field
      - types of scientific evidence
        
        weakest : Anecdotal & Expert Opinions
        
        evidence without scientific studies
        
        based on personal experiences
        
        Animal & Cell Studies (experimental)
        
        Animal research can predict human effects, but observed effects may vary,
        
        necessitating further human trials and testing on isolated cells to confirm findings in humans.
        
        Case Reports & Case Series (observational)
        
        case report : a written record on a specific subject
        
        case series tracks multiple subjects without causation.
        
        Case-Control Studies (observational)
        
        retrospectively examining two groups with and without specific conditions, show correlation but struggle to prove causation.
        
        Cohort Studies (observational)
        
        compares a group with a specific characteristic or treatment over time to a control group, observing any differences in outcomes.
        
        Randomised Controlled Trials (experimental)
        
        Blind trials involve subjects randomly assigned to a test or control group, with participants and experimenters unaware of their position, thereby removing bias.
        
        Systematic Review
        
        utilize multiple randomized controlled trials and consider study quality to draw conclusions,
        
        reducing individual bias and providing a comprehensive understanding of the evidence.
    - - types of evidence
        
        written : written material that tells the story of things that happened over past centuries
        
        example
        
        books
        
        newspaper articles
        
        official reports
        
        literature
        
        letters
        
        legal document
        
        can be reliable if the author is less guarded about their opinion
        
        it's important to ask key questions like who wrote it, who read it, when, and why to fully understand the story
        
        can be potential bias from the publication
        
        visual : includes photographs, artworks and films
        
        Photographs can be deceptive, as they are often taken with a specific purpose, giving a biased view of the subject matter
        
        To understand the truth, we must ask who took the photograph and why
        
        Visual evidence requires careful interpretation.
        
        oral : made up of the stories and memories that are passed down by word of mouth or by audio recordings
        
        Social historians appreciate this approach as it deals with unique aspects of life
        
        they must question the accuracy of their accounts due to varying memory styles.
        
        artefacts or physical evidence: can be primary source
        
        hese items contribute to the story of millions of lives and are collected by museums to record how people lived in society and cultures
        
        can be really useful in supporting the conclusions we reach after examining other types of evidence.
      - two main types of historical evidence are primary and secondary sources
- - - - depending on the level of knowledge of the knower
    - - the quality of the research methods
      - size and representatives of sample
      - statistical significance of result
- - - - scientific research
        
        replication
        
        large sample size
        
        use latest technology
        
        peer review
    - - comparative approach
        
        examines historical events in order to create explanations that are valid beyond a particular time and place, either by direct comparison to other historical events, theory building, or reference to the present day
        
        have problem because items (source/evidence) under comparison are unlikely to be simultaneous
      - counterfactual approach
        
        explores history and historical incidents by extrapolating a timeline in which key historical events either did not occur or had an outcome different from the actual historical outcome.
      - outside approach
        
        scrutinising the past from angle that emphasises the physical and geographical environments in which they took place
      - cliodynamics
        
        attempt to focus on empirically verifiable data as key to historical scholarship can be taken further
        
        big quantifiable data is used in order to detect trends and correlations
      - inside approach
        
        to understand historical events, developments, and individuals from an insider's perspective
      - literary approach
        
        the study and analysis of historical events and developments through the lens of storytelling, narrative structure, and the use of literary techniques
    - - consider multiple perspectives, differentiate facts from biased opinions, and engage in open-minded and comprehensive analysis.
        
        historical fallacies arise when false reasoning, biases, or incomplete evidence distort historical arguments
        
        RLE : American Civil War
  - - - physics & chemistry: old evidence can be use for long time (to explain principles/theory)
      - biology & medicine and health sciences: recent evidence become more acceptable due to latest technology used
    - - does not fixed
        
        will refer to multiple evidence collected to proof event that happen in the past
  - - - Referring to latest discovery made by the scientist to proof discovery
        
        Undergo peer review before publishing the evidence
        
        nature of natural science : self-correcting
        
        open to any new discovery/modification
    - - nature of history: available source material , study about the past
      - refer to latest types of sources found by the historian before make any interpretation
        
        prioritize primary and secondary sources
      - based on new evidence found , historian will selected the reliable evidence and added new event in the history
      - history : mixture of scientific research, imaginative or speculation (interpretation) and literary (presentation)
      - it become evidence only when we use them to argue for interpretation of the past