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TOPIC 5. ORAL COMMUNICATION. ELEMENTS GOVERNING ORAL DISCOURSE. MOST…
TOPIC 5. ORAL COMMUNICATION. ELEMENTS GOVERNING ORAL DISCOURSE. MOST COMMON ROUTINES AND FORMULAE. TYPICAL STRATEGIES IN ORAL COMMUNICATION.
2.1. CHARACTERISTICS
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According to Eggins, spoken communication is characterised by its dynamic structure, by being context-dependent, interactive, open-ended, spontaneous, with an everyday lexis.
2. Wood (2012) defines ORAL COMMUNICATION as "the process of sharing information and creating meaning through the use of spoken language, including both formal and informal interactions"
- Eggins classifies spoken interactions into 2 groups motivated by different functions or communicative purpose and context:
- conversations (interpersonally motivated)
- encounters (pragmatically motivated).
Eggins, S. (1994). An Introduction to Systemic Functional Linguistics.
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Wood, J. T. (2012). Interpersonal communication: Everyday encounters
ELEMENTS of OC studied by Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis:
- CAH identified a system of management of conversations = way in which people exchange the opportunity to speak: turn-taking (Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson, 1974)
- Adjacency Pair (Coulthard, 1985) (2 utterances that are a unit of social action, forming a pair. These can be FPPs or SPPs (eg: Q-A). Each has a specific purpose as they're devices to coordinate speakers through a series of highly predictable reciprocal obligations; a formalisation of our intuitive understanding that conversations proceed by participants taking up what the last person said in a regular way).
Second-Pair Parts can be:
- Expected or Preferred response. socially favoured, produced quickly and without hesitation to maintain the flow of conversation.
- Unexpected/Dispreferred: delayed with more elaborate constructions to mitigate the potential face-threatening nature of the response.
Coulthard, M. (1985). An Introduction to Discourse Analysis
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NORMS
when planning conversations, participants must coordinate their speech so they can reach their respective goals. This process leads us to consider:
- Turn-taking major requirements:
The problem of coordinating talk when there are +2 participants is solved thanks to Sacks, Schefgloff and Jefferson if some rules are fulfilled: The next turn goes to the person addressed to by the current speaker, then it goes to the person who speaks first, and the following turn is taken by the current addresser if they resume before anyone else speaks.
Sacks, H., Schegloff, E. A., & Jefferson, G. (1974). A simple systematics for the organization of turn-taking in conversation.
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4) the content, order of the speakers and the amount they say shouldn't be fixed ahead of time.
3) the gaps between turns should be brief, for efficiency.
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The cooperative Principle by Paul Grice
to communicate accurately and efficiently, interactants try to cooperate by following maxims of conversation. However, they may violate these to be indirect, humorous or sarcastic
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Grice, P. (1975). "Essay on Logic and Conversation"
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ROUTINES AND FORMULAE are techniques developed to allow participants in oral discourse to communicate more efficiently.
- For Ellis (2008), routines are unvarying sequences of actions regularly followed to achieve a specific goal: to construct discourse
- According to Ellis (2008), formula is a set of phrases or a fixed expression used in specific contexts to convey particular meanings. They're used as conventional or ceremonial expressions to compensate for the indefiniteness of spoken language.
Response elicitors are generalized question tags to seek that a message has been understood and accepted.
Tags are elements added as an afterthought to a grammatical unit (esp. a clausal) used as a retrospective qualification.
INTERJECTIONS are inserts that have an exclamatory function, expressive of the speaker's emotion ("oh" for surprise, "ugh" for disgust, etc.)
Attention signals have the main function of attracting the attention of addressees. They're familiar and impolite.
Response forms are inserts used as a brief and routinized responses to a previous remark by a different speaker
Greetings and Farewells are reciprocated in a symmetrical exchange. The briefer the greeting, the more informal it is.
DISCOURSE MARKERS are inserts that occur at the beginning of a turn or utterance (I mean/you see)
POLITE SPEECH-ACT FORMULAE used in conventional speech acts, such as thanking, apologizing, congratulating.
1st PERSON IMPERATIVES WITH LET'S are an invariant pragmatic particle introducing independent clauses where the speaker makes a proposal for action.
EXPLETITIVES are used for (semi)taboo expressions (swearwords) used as exclamations, esp. in reaction to some negative experience.
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition.
ORAL COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES are used when speakers begin the speech act with the intention of affecting their listeners
PLANNING STRATEGIES
- First, speakers plan what they want to say based on how they want to change the mental state of their listeners.
- Then, in planning what to say speakers implicitly have a problem to solve, namely, what linguistic devices should be selected to affect the listener in the way intended. The solution requires a battery of considerations (including the knowledge of the listener, the social context, and the linguistic devices available)
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TOPIC 6. WRITTEN COMMUNICATION. DIFFERENT TYPES OF WRITTEN TEXTS. STRUCTURES AND FORMAL ELEMENTS. NORMS GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE
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2.1.CHARACTERISTICS
According to Allen et al (2016), characteristics of written language are associated with writing proficiency. They emphasised the flexibility in the use of linguistic properties as a key factor in written communication.
Allen, LK., Snow, E., McNamara, D. . (2016). The narrative waltz: The role of flexibility in writing proficiency.
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A) GENERAL: PPDOCVF
orthography through graphemes, punctuation marks
Complexity: longer clauses and + complex subordinate sentences due to a greater nº of lexical words
Distance (different contexts)
technical vocabulary + varied and formal register
processing time to decode info
Formality (conventionalized forms enable readers to recognise the txt type)
Permanence (unlimited access)
Canale & Swain defined communication as the exchange and negotiation of information between +2 individuals through the use of (non) verbal symbols, oral/written/visual modes, as well as comprehension and production processes.
This definition involves:
- the exchange of information, which implies a will to communicate and an information gap that will lead to a process of negotiation for meaning.
- the use of a shared code which implies the shared knowledge of reality and the symbols used to represent it
- the existence of 2 processes that require the command of cognitive skills both to codify and decode the message.
Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical Bases of Communicative Approaches to Second Language Teaching and Testing
WRITING SYSTEM IN ENGLISH
- According to the , English has 26 letters forming 44 phonemes, with graphemes ranging from single letters (i) to multi-letter (ch/sh/qu/igh/ought) combinations
- punctuation marks (comma, full stop, semi-colon, brackets, dash, hyphen, quotation marks, question/exclamation mark)
- sign to indicate the omission of graphical characters (')
- additional symbols to indicate percentage, value of money (%$&), etc.
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3.Different types of written texts can co-occur in the same text and the may combine so it can be hard to distinguish and identify them.
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types according to their intention
- txts depend on what the author wants their addressee to do or imagine.
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6. ROUTINES AND FORMULAE are techniques developed to allow writers and readers to communicate more efficiently by compressing textual meaning into a limited nº of lexical items and organizing them in a specific way.
- For Ellis (2008), routines are unvarying sequences of actions regularly followed to achieve a specific goal: to construct texts.
- According to Ellis (2008), formula is a set of phrases or a fixed expression used in specific contexts to convey particular meanings.They're used as conventional or ceremonial expressions
WL makes use of them depending of the type of text: LEL PE
- Letters: openings and closings (Dear, best wishes).
- Opinion Essay: add info (additionally)
- Listing a series of points: firstly, finally.
- Postcards, reports, summaries
- To explain a point already made: I mean
- To give examples: For instance
Ellis, R. (2008). The study of second language acquisition.
5. NORMS GOVERNING WRITTEN TEXTS in relation to:
- Arrangement of information: they're connections among clauses and how they're related to the preceding and following sentences. These connections contribute to topic development and maintenance, ensuring logic flow.
- Surface connections: they're cohesive devices that establish relations between persons and events in a text. They help trace participants and interpret the way in which different parts of the text are related.
- Semantic connections allow to make sense of a text as a unit of meaning. They ensure that the text is coherent and makes sense as a whole.
Robert-Alain de Beaugrande's norms of governing Written texts
Beaugrande, R. (2014). Discourse Analysis: An Introduction
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- According to Rossiter (2021), written communication is undeterred, indirect and unidirectional, so the receiver cannot demand verification or clarification. For him, written communication depends on correct use of grammar, syntax, vocabulary and spelling to ensure that messages are immediately comprehensible to the reader, and not meaningless or ambiguous.