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DESIGNING FOR EXTREMES 2023!, SOLUTIONS, MARS CHALLENGES, Solutions (Ali),…

- - - - LOW AIR PRESSURE CANNOT SUPPORT HUMAN RESPIRATION ON MARS
        
        LOW CONCENTRATION OF OXYGEN
        
        OXYGEN PRODUCTION
      - 100 TIMES HIGHER LEVELS OF RADIATION EXPOSURE COMPARED TO EARTH
        
        AFFECTING REPRODUCTION HEALTH CAUSING BIRTH DEFECTS
        
        COGNITIVE IMPAIRMENTS AND NEUROLOGICAL ISSUES
        
        CELL MUTATIONS
        
        HIGH COSMIC RAYS ON MARS CAUSES POTENTIAL HUMAN HEALTH RISK
        
        MARS AVERAGE SURFACE PRESSURE IS APPROXIMATELY 0.6% OF EARTH
        
        THE PRESSURE DIFFERENTIAL AFFECTS THE AIR CIRCU;ATION
        
        LOW PRESSURE AFFECTS
        
        HUMAN BODY TEMPERATURE
        
        HEALTH ISSUES
      - FREQUENT DUST STORMS
        
        AIRBORNE DUST PARTICLE FLUCTUATES THE TEMPERATURE PATTERNS
        
        EXTREME TEMPERATURES RANGERS BETWEEN -125 DEGREE CELSIUS AND 20 DEGREE CELSIUS
        
        THE FINE PARTICLES CAUSES ABRASION AND EROSION OF SURFACES
        
        EXACERBATE RADIATION EXPOSURE
        
        DUST PARTICLES CONTRIBUTE TO LOCAL ELECTRIC FIELD
        
        ALTERING THE ATMOSPHERIC CHEMISTRY OF MARS
    - - WATER AVAILABILITY
        
        BRINY WATER FLOW
        
        HIGH SALT CONCENTRATED
        
        PERCHLORATE SALTS
        
        LIMITED LIQUID WATER RESOURCES
        
        BIOLOGICAL HAZARD IMPACT ON HUMAN HEALTH
        
        COLD TEMPERATURES PRODUCE WATER PRIMARILY IN ICE FORM
        
        EXTRACTING WATER FROM POLAR ICE CAPS
        
        LIMITED ENERGY GENERATED
        
        DUST STORMS
        
        LIMITED SUNLIGHT
        
        SEASONAL CHANGERS IMPACT THE ACCESSIBILITY OF WATER
        
        HIGH-ENERGY PROCESS IS REQUIRED TO RELEASE WATER
        
        TRANSFER WATER LOSS DUE TO EVAPORATION
        
        CONTAMINATED WATER
        
        HEALTH RISK
        
        LOGISTICS CHALLENGERS AS WATER ICE ARE RANDOMLY DISTRIBUTED ACROSS MARS
      - AGRICULTURE
        
        LIMITED NUTRIENT #
        
        MARS WEATHER ARE NOT SUITABLE AS A CONTROLLED ENVIRONMENT IS REQUIRED FOR PLANT GROWTH
        
        ENERGY AND WATER DEMAND
        
        NTRODUCING NATIVE MICROORGANISMS COULD ALTER MARS ECOSYSTEMS
        
        SOIL CONTAMINATION
    - - PHYSICAL
        
        ESTIMATED 38% LOWER SURFACE GRAVITY THAN EARTH
        
        RESTRICTIVE MOVEMENT AND CONFINEMENT
        
        HEALTH ISSUES RELATED TO
        
        COLD TEMPERATURES “ FROSTBITE AND HYPOTHERMIA”
        
        RADIATION
        
        RESPIRATION
        
        SUPPLEMENT DEFICIENCY
      - MENTAL
        
        PSYCHOLOGICAL CHALLENGERS
        
        ANXIETY
        
        STRESS
        
        DEPRESSION
  - - - Nuclear Power
      - Microbial Fuel Cells
      - Solar Panels
        
        Mars only recieves 43% of the solar energy that Earth receives
        
        Mars has a much thinner atmosphere than Earth
        
        Solar panels would need to be very energy efficient and much larger than the ones used on Earth
        
        Mars is further away from the Sun than Earth
        
        Renewable
    - - Prefabricated elements that could be built on Earth and transported to Mars or can be built on Mars itself
      - Inflatable habitats can be built on Earth and transported to Mars in its deflated form to reduce the amount of space used up on the rocket during transportation to Mars
      - Using robotic systems to build and assemble elements
      - Regolith Sintering
        
        Regolith Sintering is the process of bonding loose fragments of rock, soil and dust, that covers a celestial body, by heating up these particles by using heat sources or concentrated sunlight
      - 3D Printing the elements and buildings of the habitat
    - - Polar Ice Caps
      - In-Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) Vehicles #
    - - Travelling to Mars from Earth
        
        Need to create more advanced rockets
        
        Use a different fuel source for the rocket that is more energy efficient and more environmentally friendly
        
        More modern research/technology needs to be implemented to increase the perfomance and efficiency of the rockets
        
        Try to reduce the amount of time it takes to travel to Mars
        
        SpaceX - Starship
        
        100 - 150 metric tonne fully reusable payload
        
        Composed of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy rocket
        
        Most powerful launch vehicle ever developed
        
        The Super Heavy rocket is completely reusable and after launching the Starship spacecraft into space, it will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and land back at the launch site
        
        Starship will be able to transport up to 100 people on long-duration interplanetary flights
        
        When on Mars, it can be refueled using Mars local resources of H2O and CO2
        
        The Starship spacecraft can be refilled in low-Earth orbit before leaving for Mars
        
        Could potentially be used one day for travelling anywhere on Mars in a very short amount of time
        
        SpaceX - Super Heavy Rocket
        
        It is powered by 33 Raptor engines using sub-cooled liquid methane and liquid oxygen
        
        The Super Heavy rocket is completely reusable and after launching the Starship spacecraft into space, it will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and land back at the launch site
        
        The Super Heavy Rocket is the booster of the Space X Starship launch system
        
        Has 3400 metric tonne propellant capacity
      - Transport around Mars
        
        Rovers for Humans
        
        It can reach a top speed of 110 km/h but is unlikely to travel more than 24 km/h on Mars
        
        It has an electric motor that's powered by solar panels and a 700 Volt battery
        
        It contains life support systems, communication and navigation systems
        
        It can carry up to 4 people at a time
        
        Has 6 open structured wheels
        
        It was designed to relate to the conditions and resources on Mars
        
        Weighs 2500 kg
        
        Mock lab in the back of the rover to conduct experiments
        
        In-Situ Resource Utilisation (ISRU) Vehicles
        
        Very useful in the process of identifying, extracting and purifying water
        
        It can be used to recycle waste water
        
        It has the ability to drill and mine water ice
        
        Used to extract resources such as minerals and water ice
        
        Drones
        
        Used to test if a vehicle would be able to fly in Mars' atmosphere
        
        Paving the way for newer more advanced flying vehicles that could potentially transport people one day
        
        Able to identify points of interest that may be hard to access
        
        Hyperloop
        
        Can travel very fast between locations (potentially up to 1200 km/h)
        
        Could be used as direct transportation between different locations or between domes on Mars
        
        No drag in the tube to slow down the train
        
        Very expensive transportation method
        
        Hyperloop train travels in a vacuum
    - - Hydroponics
        
        Water and Nutrient Management
        
        Lighting
        
        Root Support
        
        Water Recycling
        
        Nutrient Solution
      - Aquaponics
        
        Water Circulation
        
        Fish Waste Management
        
        Synergy
        
        Nitrogen Cycling
        
        Plants and Fish
    - - Selecting a suitable environment
        
        Flat (or mostly flat) surface that is easily able to be built on
        
        Location that is close to natural resources e.g., water source
        
        Location that recieves enough sunlight which would aid in the harvesting and production of solar energy
        
        Hard surface to help with structural integrity of buildings
        
        Located close to scientific points of interest
        
        Olympus Mons
        
        Valles Marineris
        
        Hellas Planitia
        
        Gale Crater
        
        Polar Ice Caps
        
        Location that makes landing on Mars easy
  - - - REGOLITH
        
        ACCESSIBILITY
        
        PARTICLE SIZE DISTRIBUTION
        
        EXCAVATION
        
        EQUIPMENT
        
        REDUCED GRAVITY
        
        EROSION
        
        EXTREME TEMPERATURE AND WEATHER
        
        TRANSPORTATION
        
        LIMITED EQUIPMENT
        
        CHEMICAL REACTION
        
        REGOLITH CONTAINS VARIOUS MINERALS THAT COULD REACT TO THE MARS EXTERNAL ENVIRONMENT
        
        THE PROPERTIES MIGHT NOT PRODUCE THE DESIRED WORKABILITY TO CURRENT EARTH MATERIALS
        
        LOW COHESIVE PROPERTIES
        
        STRUCTURAL INTEGRITY
        
        LIMITED LIQUID WATER TO DESIGN BINDERS
        
        HEALTH IMPACT
        
        RESPIRATORY ISSUES
        
        EXPOSURE TO REGOLITH DUST COULD CAUSE POTENTIAL LONG-TERM LUNG DAMAGE
        
        HUMAN INTERACTION WITH MATERIAL CONTAINING
        
        HARMFUL MINERALS
        
        REACTIVE CHEMICAL
    - - IN-SITU WITH REGOLITH
        
        MATERIAL CAN BE EXCAVATED, COLLECTED, AND PROCESSED TO EXTRACT USABLE MATERIALS
        
        REGOLITH PARTICLES CAN BE MIXED WITH BINDING AGENTS
        
        USING MARS RESOURCES REDUCES THE NEED FOR TRANSPORTING BUILDING MATERIALS FROM EARTH
        
        REDUCES THE ECOLOGICAL FOOTPRINT
      - 3D PRINTING WITH REGOLITH
        
        REGOLITH CAN FORM A POWDER AND MIXED WITH BINDING AGENTS TO CREATE A PRINTABLE PASTE
        
        STRUCTURES CAN BE TAILORED TO SPECIFIC NEEDS, INCLUDING HABITAT INTERIORS AND FUNCTIONAL COMPONENTS.
- - - - Water
      - Food
      - Energy
        
        Storage
        
        Battery
      - Air
    - - Construction
        
        Materials
  - - - PROBLEMS
        
        Risks of extraterrestrial life (ALIENS) :alien: :alien: :alien: :alien
        
        Fire and Combustion: Fire can be particularly hazardous in a confined space environment with limited escape routes. Special fire prevention and suppression measures are required :fire: :explode:
        
        Risk of crash
        
        Solar Flares: Solar flares and other solar events can release bursts of high-energy particles that could pose radiation risks to the inhabitants. :sunny:
        
        Micrometeoroids and Debris: Microscopic meteoroids and space debris can impact the habitat, causing damage to the structure and potentially compromising the safety of the inhabitants. :space_invader:
      - SOLUTIONS
    - - SOLUTIONS
        
        Vertical farming involves growing plants in stacked layers or shelves, often using LED lights to provide controlled light spectra and intensities. It maximizes space utilization and allows for year-round cultivation.
        
        Algae can be grown in bioreactors to produce biomass rich in nutrients and proteins. Algae can also convert carbon dioxide into oxygen through photosynthesis.
        
        Hydroponics involves growing plants without soil, using nutrient-rich water. Aeroponics takes this a step further by growing plants in a mist or air environment. Both methods conserve water and space and can be used to cultivate a variety of crops.
        
        Insects such as mealworms and crickets can be farmed for protein-rich food. They require less space and resources compared to traditional livestock.
        
        Selecting or engineering crops that thrive in space conditions can improve food production. Genetic modifications can enhance crop resistance to pests, improve nutrient content, and increase growth rates.
        
        Bioprinting involves creating tissues and even small-scale food products using 3D printing technology and cultured cells. Cellular agriculture focuses on growing meat and other animal products from cell cultures.
        
        While not a direct solution for food production, sending prepackaged and preserved foods from Earth remains an option for shorter missions. Nutritional needs can be supplemented with fresh food grown in space.
      - PROBLEMS
        
        Dependence on Technology: The success of space agriculture relies heavily on advanced technologies like LED lighting, hydroponics, and environmental control systems. Equipment malfunctions or power outages can jeopardize the entire food production system.
        
        Crop Yield and Growth Rate: The growth rate of crops in space might differ from their growth on Earth due to altered gravity and other factors. Ensuring sufficient yield and growth rates are necessary to meet the inhabitants' nutritional needs.
        
        Long-Term Sustainability: Ensuring the food production system's long-term sustainability is a major concern, especially for extended missions or permanent settlements. Balancing food production with other habitat needs is crucial for the entire ecosystem's stability.
        
        Crop Selection and Diversity: Limited crop diversity can lead to nutritional deficiencies and increase the risk of total crop failure due to a single pest or disease affecting the entire crop.
    - - PROBLEMS
        
        Energy Transport: Transmitting energy over long distances in space is challenging, with traditional power lines not feasible and wireless methods facing inefficiencies.
        
        Radiation Exposure: High-energy particles such as solar and cosmic radiation can damage solar panels and other energy systems over time, necessitating radiation shielding.
        
        Solar Variability: Fluctuations in solar energy due to spacecraft orbits, eclipses, and other factors can impact power generation and require efficient energy storage systems.
        
        Temperature Extremes: Drastic temperature variations between sunlit and shaded areas stress energy systems, requiring effective thermal management solutions.
        
        Resource Limitations: The lack of easily accessible resources like fossil fuels requires reliance on alternative energy sources that may be limited in availability
        
        Maintenance Challenges: Maintenance and repairs in space are expensive and complex, requiring durable and self-sustaining energy systems.
        
        Costs: Developing, launching, and operating energy systems in space is costly due to spacecraft, launch, and infrastructure expenses.
        
        Space Debris: The presence of space debris poses risks to energy generation systems, with collisions potentially damaging solar panels and other components.
      - SOLUTIONS
        
        Different energy generation systems can be used in space to adapt to changing conditions, including solar power, nuclear power, energy storage, regenerative fuel cells, dynamic systems, thermal energy conversion, kinetic energy harvesting and energy harvesting from space radiation.
        
        Low power usage buildings are designed with energy-efficient features, technologies, and practices that minimize energy consumption and reduce environmental impact
        
        Energy storage systems in space store surplus energy and release it when needed, maintaining a stable power supply despite variations in energy generation sources.
    - - PROBLEMS
        
        Shielding Materials: Choosing the right materials for radiation shielding is crucial. While materials like lead and concrete are effective at blocking certain types of radiation, they may not be practical for a space habitat due to their weight and bulkiness. Alternative materials like hydrogen-rich plastics or water may be more suitable for shielding against high-energy particles
        
        Thickness and Weight: Balancing the thickness of the shielding material with the overall weight of the habitat is a challenge. Thicker shielding provides better protection but also increases the mass of the habitat, which affects launch costs and propulsion requirements.
        
        Structural Integration: Radiation shielding needs to be integrated into the habitat's structure, which can impact the overall design and construction. Ensuring that the shielding doesn't compromise the habitat's structural integrity, while also maintaining a comfortable living environment, is a complex task
        
        Astronaut Activities: The shielding might impact the ability of astronauts to perform tasks outside the habitat, such as spacewalks or maintenance activities. Balancing the need for radiation protection with the practical requirements of space missions is a consideration
        
        Cost and Resources: Developing and implementing an effective radiation shielding system can be expensive and resource-intensive
        
        Radiation Sources: There are two main sources of radiation in space: galactic cosmic rays (GCRs) and solar particle events (SPEs) from the sun. GCRs are high-energy particles originating outside the solar system, while SPEs are bursts of energetic particles associated with solar flares. Both types of radiation can penetrate spacecraft and habitats
      - SOLUTIONS
        
        Design the habitat with recessed areas, overhangs, and shielding elements that can redirect or block UV radiation. Minimize direct pathways for UV light to enter living and working spaces.
        
        Provide astronauts with specialized clothing, visors, and eyewear designed to block or reflect UV radiation. These items can be worn during spacewalks and outdoor activities.
        
        Use materials with high UV absorption properties in the construction of habitat walls and windows. These materials can block or absorb a significant portion of incoming UV radiation. Apply specialized films or coatings to windows and surfaces to filter out or reflect UV radiation while allowing visible light to pass through.
        
        Incorporate radiation shields composed of materials with high atomic numbers that can attenuate UV radiation as well as other types of radiation.
        
        Use plants or other biological systems that can absorb UV radiation as part of their natural processes. These systems can be integrated into the habitat design. Provides a natural and sustainable solution while contributing to air regeneration and aesthetics.
        
        Install UV radiation sensors throughout the habitat that continuously monitor radiation levels. Alert systems can inform astronauts when UV levels become dangerous.
  - - - Isolation and Social Interaction: Prolonged isolation from Earth and limited social interactions with a small group of people can lead to feelings of loneliness, boredom, and even conflicts. Creating opportunities for social interactions, communal activities, and personal spaces is essential. :cry:
      - Circadian Rhythms: Without natural day-night cycles, inhabitants might experience disruptions to their circadian rhythms, leading to sleep disturbances and mood changes. Incorporating artificial lighting systems that mimic Earth's natural lighting patterns can help regulate sleep and mood. :hearts:
      - Monotony and Routine: Repetitive daily routines and tasks can contribute to monotony and psychological fatigue. Introducing variety through activities, exercise, entertainment, and recreational spaces can alleviate this issue.
      - Stress and Anxiety: The unique challenges of space living, such as the potential for technical malfunctions or emergencies, can contribute to stress and anxiety. Providing adequate training, clear procedures, and psychological support resources is crucial.
      - Sensory Deprivation: The absence of sensory experiences like fresh air, natural sounds, and the feeling of wind on the skin can lead to sensory deprivation. Incorporating virtual reality, simulated natural elements, and multi-sensory experiences can help address this challenge
      - Loss of Connection to Earth: Inhabitants might experience a disconnect from their home planet, culture, and loved ones, leading to feelings of homesickness and nostalgia. Establishing regular communication with Earth, allowing personal items, and providing cultural activities can mitigate this issue.
      - Privacy and Personal Space: The challenge of maintaining privacy and personal space in a confined environment can impact psychological well-being. Designing private quarters and designated personal spaces can provide inhabitants with a sense of autonomy.
      - Lack of Nature: Being surrounded by artificial environments without access to natural elements can lead to a sense of disconnection from nature. Integrating green spaces, plant life, and simulated nature can help address this issue.
      - Group Dynamics: Living in close quarters can amplify interpersonal conflicts and challenges. Developing conflict resolution strategies, promoting effective communication, and fostering a sense of community can improve group dynamics.
      - Confined Space: The limited living area in a space habitat can lead to feelings of confinement and claustrophobia. Designing open and flexible spaces that provide a sense of roominess and allow for privacy is crucial. :scream:
    - - Monotony and Routine: Include recreational spaces with diverse entertainment options to prevent monotony.
      - Isolation and Social Interaction: Create communal activities and social interaction hubs, along with private retreat areas to balance social needs
      - Confined Space: Design open, flexible spaces with multi-purpose areas to reduce feelings of confinement and claustrophobia.
      - Privacy and Personal Space: Design private quarters with personalized space to ensure autonomy.
      - Lack of Nature: Integrate indoor gardens, green spaces, and simulated nature to reconnect with natural elements.
      - General Construction Measure: Include communal and recreational spaces, indoor gardens with Earth-like elements, virtual reality zones, circadian lighting, and strategic design that encourages community interaction to create a balanced living environment.**
      - Stress and Anxiety: Provide adequate training, clear emergency procedures, and psychological support resources to reduce anxiety.
      - Group Dynamics: Develop conflict resolution strategies and foster community to ensure harmonious group living.
      - General Life Support Measures: Integrate advanced communication networks, programmable multisensory environments mimicking Earth-like settings, and regular mental health monitoring to enhance connection, familiarity, and well-being.
  - - - SOLUTIONS
        
        Techniques
        
        Inflatable Structures
        
        Bigelow Expandable Activity Module (BEAM): NASA and Bigelow Aerospace launched BEAM to the International Space Station (ISS) in 2016. BEAM is an inflatable habitat module that can expand after reaching space. It's designed to test the viability of inflatable structures in space environments.
        
        Biomimicry and Advanced Materials
        
        NASA's BioNutrients Project: NASA's Kennedy Space Center is researching ways to use advanced materials inspired by nature to create space habitats. The BioNutrients project looks at utilizing algae-based materials to create a sustainable, regenerative habitat environment.
        
        Modular Building Blocks
        
        International Space Station (ISS) Modules: The ISS is a prime example of modular construction in space. Over the years, various modules from different countries have been added to the ISS, each serving specific functions such as living quarters, laboratories, and more.
        
        Robotic Construction
        
        European Space Agency (ESA) MELiSSA Greenhouse: While not a habitat in the traditional sense, the MELiSSA project by ESA explores closed-loop life support systems for long-duration space missions. It involves using robots to cultivate plants within a controlled environment, providing essential resources like oxygen and food.
        
        3D Printing
        
        Project Olympus: NASA's Artemis program is exploring 3D printing techniques to create structures on the Moon. The "Project Olympus" initiative aims to develop a lunar lander that includes a habitat built using 3D-printed parts and in-situ resources.
        
        Tensegrity Structures
      - PROBLEMS
    - - PROBLEMS
        
        Use of multiple systems
        
        air supplies
        
        Genrating electricy
      - SOLUTIONS
    - - PROBLEMS
        
        Oxygen generations
        
        Limited space
        
        water management
        
        COST :money_with_wings::moneybag::moneybag:
        
        Acesse to constrcution materials
        
        Raw local materials from earth to first build it?
        
        Building in space?
        
        Microgravity conditions
        
        constant exposure
        
        How would we separate human needs (systems, sleeping quarters, toilets, gym, greenhouses
      - SOLUTIONS
- - - - Heatwaves
        
        As temperatures rise, heatwaves become more intense and frequent. A 1.5-degree Celsius warming can lead to longer and more severe heatwaves, which can have detrimental effects on human health, agriculture, and ecosystems.
        
        Altercations with air humidity.
      - Extreme Precipitation Events
        
        Warmer air holds more moisture, leading to an increase in the intensity and frequency of heavy rainfall events. This can result in more intense storms, flash floods, and widespread flooding in certain regions.
      - Droughts
        
        Climate change can alter precipitation patterns, leading to more prolonged and severe droughts in some areas. Higher temperatures can also increase evaporation rates, exacerbating water scarcity.
      - Tropical Cyclones (Hurricanes and Typhoons)
        
        Warmer ocean temperatures provide more energy for the formation and intensification of tropical cyclones, making them more powerful and potentially more frequent.
      - Wildfires
      - Melting Glaciers and Ice Sheers
        
        Warming temperatures contribute to the melting of glaciers and ice sheets, leading to rising sea levels and increased risk of coastal flooding during storms.
      - Impact on Atmospheric Circulation
        
        A warmer climate can disrupt atmospheric circulation patterns, leading to changes in weather systems, including the positions of high-pressure and low-pressure systems.
      - Intense Storms and Severe Weather
        
        Higher temperatures can lead to stronger and more unpredictable storms, including thunderstorms, tornadoes, and hailstorms.
      - Sea-level Rise and Storm Surges
        
        Warmer temperatures cause thermal expansion of seawater and the melting of ice, leading to higher sea levels. This, in turn, increases the potential impact of storm surges during coastal storms.
    - - Decrease in essential nutrient Zooxanthellae
        
        Produce oxygen via photosynthesis
        
        Affects coral health
        
        Decrease photosynthesis to produce oxygen
        
        Weakens structural integrity
        
        Changes coral colour. Turns white
        
        Reduces coral resilience
        
        Inflict coral death
        
        decline in coral reefs
      - Burning of Fossil Fuels and Deforestation
        
        The excess CO2 released into the atmosphere from human activities, such as burning fossil fuels and deforestation, is absorbed by the world's oceans. When CO2 dissolves in seawater, it undergoes a chemical reaction that forms carbonic acid. This process lowers the ocean's pH, making it more acidic—a phenomenon known as ocean acidification.
      - Physiological stress
        
        When corals are exposed to prolonged high sea temperatures, they experience physiological stress. Under stress, corals expel their zooxanthellae, which are responsible for providing them with essential nutrients and color. This loss of zooxanthellae causes corals to turn white, a phenomenon known as coral bleaching.
      - Synergistic Effects
        
        Ocean acidification and rising sea temperatures work synergistically to exacerbate coral bleaching. While ocean acidification weakens coral structures and reduces their resilience, elevated sea temperatures lead to more frequent and severe coral bleaching events. Together, these stressors can have devastating effects on coral reefs worldwide.
      - Ocean Acidification affecting Coral Health
        
        Acidic Seawater
        
        Acidic seawater affects the ability of corals to build and maintain their calcium carbonate skeletons. As ocean acidification progresses, corals may find it challenging to maintain their structural integrity and overall health.
    - - The melting of polar ice and glaciers will contribute to rising sea levels, posing threats to low-lying coastal regions and island nations. Over time, this can consume large regions of what once was dry land.
        
        Sea Life Disturbance
        
        Loss of Habitat
        
        Melting of polar ice and glaciers will result in many animals losing traditional breading, resting and hunting grounds. = Displacement and potential declines in populations.
        
        Animals include: polar bears, seals penguins, seabirds, etc.
        
        Altered Food Chains
        
        The melting ice can disrupt the marine food chains that rely on ice algae and other organisms associated with ice. These changes can have cascading effects on the entire ecosystem, impacting the abundance and distribution of various species.
        
        Ocean Acidification via increase freshwater content
        
        Melting polar ice contributes freshwater to the oceans, which can lead to ocean acidification. This can impact numerous species and make it challenging for them to build and maintain their protective structures.
        
        Acidification affects marine organisms with calcium carbonate shells and skeletons, such as corals, shellfish, and some plankton species.
        
        Changes in Ocean Currents
        
        The influx of freshwater from melting ice can alter ocean currents and circulation patterns, influencing the distribution of nutrients and marine species. This can lead to changes in migration patterns and the availability of prey for various marine animals.
        
        Sea Level Rising consuming Coastal Regions
        
        As polar ice melts, it contributes to rising sea levels. Sea level rise can result in the submergence of coastal habitats, such as marshes and mangroves, which serve as nurseries and feeding grounds for many marine species.
        
        Shift in Species Distribution
        
        Changes in water temperature and nutrient availability due to melting ice can cause shifts in the distribution of marine species. Some species may move to new areas to find suitable conditions, while others might face challenges in adapting to these changes.
        
        Loss of Sea Ice Ecosystems
        
        Sea ice provides unique ecosystems that support a diverse range of microorganisms and animals. Melting ice can lead to the loss of these ecosystems and the associated biodiversity.
        
        Disruptions to Reproduction and Migration
        
        Many marine species rely on specific environmental cues for reproduction and migration. Changes in ice cover and ocean conditions can disrupt these cues, affecting breeding success and the ability of species to find suitable breeding grounds.
        
        Human Displacement
        
        Dangerous to human population who live closer to coastal areas. Flooding more immanent.
        
        Climate induced migration.
        
        People moving more inland away from coastal areas.
        
        Will this affect other wildlife habitats and ecosystems?
        
        Potential conflict over resources?
        
        Social and Cultural Disruption
        
        Displacement can lead to the loss of social networks, cultural heritage, and traditional ways of life, particularly for indigenous and local communities.
        
        Urbanised Challenges
        
        Displaced populations may seek refuge in urban areas, putting additional pressure on already strained infrastructure and services.
        
        Cross-border migration
        
        Human displacement can lead to cross-border migration, straining international relations and raising questions about refugee protection and support.
        
        Potential lack of access to basic services.
        
        In some cases, communities may be displaced due to a lack of access to essential services such as water, food, healthcare, and education.
        
        Loss of livelihoods
        
        Climate change impacts on agriculture, fisheries, and other livelihoods can lead to economic hardship, pushing people to move in search of work and better prospects.
        
        Forced adaption to new environments.
        
        Conflict and Political Instability
        
        Climate change and environmental degradation can exacerbate existing social, political, and economic tensions, leading to conflicts over resources and further displacements.
        
        Threats to Cultural Heritage
        
        Loss of Traditional Knowledge
        
        Disruption to Cultural Practices
        
        Impact on Sacred Grounds
        
        Loss of Archaeological Sites
        
        Displacement of Indigenous Communities
        
        Impact on Cultural Landscapes
        
        Threat to Historical Sites and Buildings
        
        Impact on Global Weather Patterns
        
        Albedo Effect
        
        Ice and snow have high albedo, which means they reflect a large portion of incoming solar radiation back into space. As ice melts, it exposes darker surfaces, such as open water or bare land, which have lower albedo and absorb more solar radiation. This leads to additional warming, known as the "albedo effect" or "ice-albedo feedback," which can further accelerate ice melt and temperature rise.
        
        Ocean Currents and Circulation
        
        The melting of polar ice contributes freshwater to the oceans, which can influence ocean currents and circulation patterns. Changes in ocean circulation can affect the distribution of heat around the globe and impact regional weather patterns. For example, alterations in the Gulf Stream and North Atlantic Drift can affect weather in Europe and North America.
        
        Jet Stream and Weather Patterns
        
        The jet stream, a high-altitude, fast-flowing air current, plays a crucial role in steering weather systems. The temperature difference between the polar regions and the equator helps drive the jet stream. As the polar regions warm faster than the rest of the planet, this temperature gradient weakens, potentially leading to a slowdown or changes in the behavior of the jet stream. These shifts can result in more persistent weather patterns, such as prolonged heatwaves, cold spells, or storm tracks.
        
        Shifts in Atmospheric Circulation
        
        Melting polar ice can lead to changes in atmospheric pressure patterns, which can affect the position and intensity of high and low-pressure systems. This, in turn, can influence the tracks of storms and weather patterns.
        
        Disruption of Atmospheric Stability
        
        Melting ice can release large quantities of cold freshwater into the oceans, which can disturb the delicate balance of temperature and salinity that influences vertical mixing and ocean stratification. This can impact atmospheric stability and influence the development of weather systems.
        
        Changes in Precipitation Patterns
        
        Changes in the distribution of ice and glaciers can impact regional moisture availability and precipitation patterns. For example, the melting of glaciers can initially lead to increased freshwater runoff, followed by reduced water supply as glaciers shrink or disappear, affecting regional rainfall and snowfall patterns.
        
        Economic Consequences
        
        Infrastructure Damage and Costs
        
        Rising sea levels and coastal erosion caused by melting ice can damage critical infrastructure in coastal areas, such as roads, buildings, ports, and power plants. Repairing and adapting infrastructure to withstand sea-level rise can be costly.
        
        Property Value Loss
        
        Properties located in areas vulnerable to sea-level rise and coastal flooding may experience reduced value, leading to financial losses for property owners and insurance companies.
        
        Impact on Tourism
        
        Melting ice and environmental changes in polar regions can affect tourism activities like Arctic cruises and trips to glaciers. A decline in tourism revenues can impact local economies that depend on this sector.
        
        Loss of Fisheries
        
        Melting ice and changes in ocean circulation can impact fisheries, disrupting fish migration patterns and reducing fish stocks. This can result in economic losses for fishing industries and communities reliant on fishing for livelihoods.
        
        Agricultural Disruptions
        
        Changes in precipitation patterns and freshwater availability can impact agriculture in certain regions, leading to reduced crop yields and economic losses for farmers.
        
        Water Scarcity
        
        Melting glaciers contribute to freshwater sources in some regions, and their decline can lead to water scarcity for agriculture, industry, and households, necessitating costly water management solutions.
        
        Displacement Costs
        
        Human displacement due to rising sea levels and extreme weather events can lead to financial burdens on governments, as they may need to provide support and resources to affected populations.
        
        Insurance Costs
        
        Increasing risks from climate-related events can lead to higher insurance premiums and increased costs for insurance companies.
        
        Loss of Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services
        
        The melting of polar ice and glaciers can lead to biodiversity loss and the disruption of ecosystems. This can affect the provision of ecosystem services like pollination, water purification, and climate regulation, which are valuable to the economy.
        
        International Relations and Trade Implications
        
        The economic consequences of climate change can strain international relations, especially when countries disagree on responsibilities for mitigation and adaptation efforts. Trade disputes related to climate policy and carbon-intensive goods can also arise.
        
        Impact on the Energy Sector
        
        Climate change can influence the energy sector, affecting the production and distribution of energy resources, leading to changes in energy prices and potential supply disruptions.
    - - Habitat Loss
        
        Rising temperatures and changing climate conditions can lead to shifts in ecosystems and vegetation zones. This can result in habitat loss for many plant and animal species that are unable to adapt or migrate quickly enough to new suitable areas.
      - Range Contractions and Extinctions
        
        As the climate warms, many species may face challenges in adapting to their changing environments. Species with narrow ranges or limited dispersal abilities may be particularly vulnerable, leading to range contractions and increased risk of local or global extinctions.
      - Coral Reefs and Marine Life
        
        Warming oceans can cause coral bleaching events, leading to the decline of coral reefs, which are among the most biodiverse marine ecosystems. Loss of coral reefs can have cascading effects on marine biodiversity, impacting a wide range of marine species.
      - Shifts in Species Diversity
        
        Many species may be forced to shift their ranges to track their preferred climate conditions. This can lead to changes in species composition and interactions within ecosystems.
      - Altered Phenology
        
        Climate change can disrupt the timing of seasonal events, such as flowering, migration, and breeding, affecting the synchronization between species and disrupting ecosystem dynamics.
      - Polar Regions and Arctic Biodiversity
        
        The polar regions are particularly sensitive to warming temperatures. Changes in the Arctic and Antarctic ecosystems can impact iconic species such as polar bears, penguins, and Arctic marine life.
      - Invasive Species
        
        Climate change can create new opportunities for invasive species to establish and thrive in regions where they were previously limited by temperature constraints. Invasive species can outcompete native species and disrupt ecosystem functioning.
      - Biodiversity Hotspots
        
        Regions with high levels of biodiversity, such as tropical rainforests and coral reefs, may experience more significant threats from climate change. Biodiversity hotspots are often found in areas that are more vulnerable to climate-related changes.
      - Ecosystem Services
        
        Biodiversity loss can impact the ability of ecosystems to provide essential services, such as pollination, water purification, and carbon sequestration, affecting human well-being and livelihoods.
      - Reduce Resilience and Adaptation
        
        Climate change can reduce the resilience of ecosystems and species, making it more challenging for them to adapt to other stressors, such as habitat destruction and pollution.
    - - Eco-Anxiety and Climate Grief
        
        The awareness of a warming climate and its potential consequences can lead to eco-anxiety, a form of stress and worry about the state of the environment and the future. People may experience grief and sadness over the loss of natural landscapes, species, and ecosystems due to climate change.
      - Fear and Uncertainty
        
        A warmer climate can bring more frequent and severe extreme weather events, which can generate fear and uncertainty about personal safety, property damage, and the well-being of loved ones.
      - Loss of Place Identity
        
        For people living in areas that are particularly vulnerable to climate change impacts, such as coastal communities facing sea-level rise, the prospect of losing their homes and the place they identify with can cause profound psychological distress.
      - Eco-Despair
        
        The perception of inadequate actions to address climate change can lead to feelings of eco-despair, a sense of hopelessness and powerlessness about the future of the planet.
      - Preoccupation with Climate Concerns
        
        Constant exposure to climate change-related news and discussions can lead to a preoccupation with environmental concerns, potentially affecting productivity and daily functioning.
      - Impact on Mental Health
        
        Climate change-related stress can exacerbate pre-existing mental health conditions or lead to the development of anxiety, depression, and other mental health issues.
      - Climate Migrant Stress
        
        Displacement due to climate change can lead to stress and mental health challenges among climate migrants, who face significant disruptions to their lives and communities.
      - Impacts on Children and Youth
        
        Young people, in particular, can be affected psychologically by the looming threat of a changing climate and uncertainties about their future.
      - Feeling of Guilt and Responsibility
        
        Individuals may feel guilty about their own carbon footprint and the role of human activities in contributing to climate change.
      - Impact on Work and Social Life
        
        Climate change concerns can influence social interactions, relationships, and work performance, affecting overall life satisfaction.
    - - Crop Yield Reduction
        
        Different crops have different temperature and moisture requirements for optimal growth. A 1.5-degree Celsius increase in temperature can lead to reduced yields for certain crops, while others may see slight benefits. Heat stress during critical growth stages can negatively impact grain and fruit development.
      - Water Stress to Crops
        
        Changes in precipitation patterns may lead to more frequent and prolonged droughts in some regions, affecting water availability for irrigation. Increased evaporation rates can also contribute to water stress for crops.
      - Shifts in Growing Seasons
        
        Warming temperatures may lead to shifts in growing seasons, affecting planting and harvesting times. This can disrupt traditional agricultural practices and impact crop success.
      - Pest and Disease Pressure
        
        Warmer temperatures can lead to the expansion of pests and diseases into new regions or extended periods of activity. This can result in increased crop damage and the need for additional pest management measures.
      - Changes in Agroecological Zones
        
        As temperatures rise, the boundaries of agroecological zones may shift, affecting the suitability of certain crops in specific regions.
      - Impact on Livestock
        
        Heat stress can negatively affect livestock health and productivity. Increased temperatures may also lead to changes in livestock feeding patterns and water requirements.
      - Impact on Fisheries and Aquaculture
        
        Warming ocean temperatures can affect fish migration patterns and alter marine ecosystems, impacting fish stocks and aquaculture operations.
      - Economic Consequences
        
        Changes in agricultural productivity can impact farmers' incomes and economic stability in regions dependent on agriculture.
      - Adaptation Challenges
        
        Farmers may need to adopt new practices, crop varieties, and irrigation methods to adapt to the changing climate, which can involve additional costs and learning curves.
      - Disruption of Food Supply chains
        
        Climate-related disruptions to transportation and infrastructure can impact the distribution and availability of food, particularly in remote and vulnerable areas.
      - Food Price Volatility
        
        Climate-related disruptions to food production can lead to price fluctuations in global food markets, making food less affordable for vulnerable populations.
      - Food Access and Nutrition
        
        Reduced food availability and higher food prices can lead to food insecurity and malnutrition, particularly for low-income populations.
      - Rural Livelihoods
        
        Many smallholder farmers and rural communities depend on agriculture for their livelihoods. Climate-related impacts on agriculture can lead to income losses and affect the well-being of rural populations.
      - Impact on Food Aid
        
        Extreme weather events and food production disruptions can increase the demand for food aid, putting additional pressure on humanitarian organizations.
      - Climate-Induced Migration
        
        Climate change impacts on food security can lead to climate-induced migration, as people may be forced to leave their homes in search of better opportunities and resources.
      - Crop Failure
        
        Extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, floods, and storms, can damage crops and result in crop failures. This can disrupt local food production and lead to food shortages.
    - - Change in Precipitation Patterns
        
        Climate change can alter precipitation patterns, leading to more intense rainfall events in some regions and prolonged droughts in others.
        
        These changes can disrupt water availability and lead to periods of water scarcity.
      - Reduced Snowpack and Glacial Retreat
        
        Warming temperatures can lead to reduced snow accumulation in mountainous regions and the melting of glaciers.
        
        Affect the timing and magnitude of water flow in rivers, impacting water availability during critical periods.
      - Increased Evaporation
        
        Higher temperatures can enhance evaporation rates, leading to greater water loss from lakes, rivers, and reservoirs.
        
        Reduce available water resources.
      - Impact on Groundwater
        
        Changes in precipitation and evaporation can affect groundwater recharge rates. In some areas, overextraction of groundwater coupled with reduced recharge can deplete aquifers, leading to long-term water stress.
      - Sea-Level Rise and Saltwater Intrusion
        
        Rising sea levels can lead to the intrusion of saltwater into coastal aquifers, contaminating freshwater sources.
        
        Reducing their usability for agriculture and drinking.
      - Impact on Ecosystems
        
        Changes in water availability can disrupt aquatic ecosystems,
        
        Affecting the health and distribution of aquatic species, as well as wetlands and other freshwater habitats.
      - Implications on Agriculture
        
        Water stress can affect agricultural productivity and irrigation practices.
        
        Changes in water availability can lead to shifts in crop suitability and may require adjustments in water management strategies.
      - Impact on Human Livelihood
        
        Water stress can have severe implications for human livelihoods, particularly in regions heavily dependent on agriculture and limited water resources.
        
        Drinking water
        
        Bathing
        
        Cleaning
        
        Washing
      - Water Quality Concerns
        
        Reduced water flow and higher temperatures can exacerbate water quality issues.
        
        Increased concentrations of Pollutants
        
        Reduced dissolved oxygen levels in ecosystems
      - Climate-Induced Migration
        
        Water stress, along with other climate change impacts, can contribute to climate-induced migration as people seek regions with better access to water resources.
    - - Reproduction
        
        Altered Breeding Seasons
        
        Warming temperatures can cause shifts in the timing of seasonal events, such as flowering and insect emergence. This can affect the availability of food resources for animals, potentially leading to mismatches in breeding times with peak food availability.
        
        Disruptions to Reproductive Cycles
        
        Hormonal Disruptions
        
        Changes in temperature and weather patterns can disrupt the hormonal cues that regulate reproduction in animals. This can lead to irregular or unsuccessful breeding seasons.
        
        Nesting Site Temperature Increase Resulting in Sex Favouritism
        
        Heated environments can contribute towards sex allocation, favouring one sex to be born over another and further disrupting the reproductive cycle
      - Nutrition
        
        Food Availability
        
        Food scarcity from the increase in Earth's temperature will occur from the lower production of food.
        
        Food Production
        
        Increasing Earth's temperatures will result in a decline in food production. This ultimately would cause a resource crisis with less food being available.
      - Habitat Issues
        
        Loss of Habitat
        
        Climate change can lead to habitat loss and fragmentation due to factors such as sea-level rise, deforestation, and shifts in vegetation zones. This can reduce the availability of suitable habitats for breeding and may lead to population declines.
        
        Sea-Level Rise
        
        Deforestation
        
        Shifts in Vegetation Zones
        
        Impact on Nesting SItes
        
        Rising temperatures and changes in precipitation can affect nesting sites for various animals, such as birds and sea turtles. Extreme weather events can also destroy nesting areas, leading to reduced reproductive success.
        
        Tampers with sex reproduction
        
        E.g. Turtles nesting in the sand. If the sand is hot, produces male turtles. Cooler sand when nesting will create female turtles. Heat increases will throw off the natural balance of male to female ratio for multiple species, including birds.
        
        Migration Patterns
        
        Many species undertake seasonal migrations for breeding and foraging. Climate change can alter the timing and routes of these migrations, affecting breeding success and population connectivity.
        
        Changes in Food Availability
        
        Climate change can affect the abundance and distribution of food resources. In response, animals may alter their migration routes to follow the shifting distribution of their prey or plant food sources.
        
        Shifts in Geographical Ranges
        
        As temperatures warm, some species are moving their ranges poleward or to higher elevations to track their preferred climate conditions. This can lead to changes in migration routes and destinations.
      - Interactions and Social Structure
        
        Species Interactions
        
        Climate change can alter the timing of plant growth and insect emergence, affecting the availability of food resources for herbivores and their predators. These changes can have cascading effects on species interactions and reproductive success.
        
        Impact on Host-Parasite Interraction
        
        Climate change can alter the distribution and abundance of parasites and disease vectors, influencing host-parasite interactions during migration.
        
        Alter Interactive Behaviours between species
        
        Some animal species, such as social mammals and birds, rely on complex social structures for reproduction and raising offspring. Climate change-induced disruptions can impact these social interactions and reproductive behaviors.
        
        Curate Fragmented groups within species
        
        Climate change can impact social structures within migratory species. For example, disruptions in migratory patterns can lead to fragmented groups or affect interactions among individuals during migration
      - Increase Animal Endangerment
        
        Climate change can exacerbate the challenges faced by endangered migratory species, making it more difficult for them to find suitable habitats and resources during their journeys.
    - - Plant life Decline
        
        Rare and endangered plant species becoming extinct
        
        Plant species becoming rare
        
        Burning of Nature
        
        Plant Dehydration
      - Food source decline for other species
        
        Impact on Agriculture
      - Invasive species increase
        
        Some invasive species may thrive in hotter climates
        
        Changes in plant community
        
        Biodiversity loss
      - Impact Ecosystem Services
        
        Carbon Storage
        
        Soil Formation
        
        Water regulation
        
        Habitat provision for wildlife
- - - - To protect moon from UV sun rays there needs to be a magnetic field
        
        In order to create a magnetic field the moon needs more mass
        
        More mass can be taken from asteroids, asteroid belt
        
        once the moon is large enough and has magnetic fields, we can import photosynthetic bacteria and algae from the earth
        
        Once a sustainable source of plants is grown, livestock can be brought and bred
    - - The moon has no atmosphere and no oxygen therefore a large dome structure is a solution to problems regarding the moons physical attributes
        
        The dome can protect the habitat from micrometeorites
        
        With regards to how expensive a dome structure will be, instead of a large dome structure, many small domes can be made
        
        Transportation between domes
        
        People will have to suit up and travel using a rover
        
        Small tunnels can be made that have oxygen in them so people are free to travel between domes without any suit
    - - 3D printing shelter is a quick way to create a habitat
        
        Using local materials such as
        lunar soil and Regolith - radiant resistant and sturdy
        
        Doesn't need any manual labour, is all automated, which can be solar powered
    - - Ice water located at the poles and the dark side of the moon. Starting base location could be at the poles for easy access to water
        
        Solar power can be used in high sun exposed areas to power robots to harvest large amounts of water. Water is crucial for survival.
        
        With water food is a possibility by growing crops.
        
        Once crops are grown, livestock can be imported and bred
      - Regolith and lunar soil
        
        Plenty available and easily harvestable, radiant resistant material and sturdy
    - - Dark side
        
        Lots of water and resources for structures
      - Poles
        
        Lots of water and sufficient sunlight for habitation
      - Near side
        
        Most amount of sunlight the moon experiences, ideal for habitation and powering for solar automated robots/technology
  - - - Water
        
        2/3 hydrogen + 1/3 oxygen
        Oxygen obtained from soil
        Hydrogen supplied from earth (**fairly challenging)
        
        Can be obtained from ice water found on soil surfaces
      - Atmosphere/air :red_flag:
        
        Sparse atmosphere (exosphere) :red_flag:
        
        No protection from solar radiation & cosmic rays
        
        No protection from meteorites
        
        Air is dusty & toxic, can make eyes water & throat sore :red_flag:
        
        Dust is fine like powder, but sharp like glass, extremely abrasive
        
        Dust contains silicate, a material commonly found on planetary bodies with volcanic activity
        
        No cloud
        
        Soil becomes electrostatically charged, causing dust to levitate above the moon's surface into equipment & human lungs
        (+ moon's low gravity)
      - Terrain
        
        Volcanoes
        
        Today, the Moon has no active volcanoes even though a significant amount of magma may persist under the lunar surface
        (Last activity ~50 million years ago)
        
        Volcanism on the Moon produced a relatively thick lunar atmosphere for a period of 70 million years between 3 and 4 billion years ago
        
        Volcanoes typically in the form of small domes and cones that form large volcanic complexes and isolated edifices
        
        Lava tubes
        
        Possible underground habitat
        
        Magma/lava?
        
        (Impact) Craters
        
        Circular depression in the surface of a solid astronomical object formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object
        
        At least 1.3 million craters larger than 1 km (0.62 mi) in diameter; of these, 83,000 are greater than 5 km (3 mi) in diameter, and 6,972 are greater than 20 km (12 mi) in diameter
        
        Characteristics
        
        a surrounding area with materials splashed out of the ground when the crater was formed; this is typically lighter in shade than older materials due to exposure to solar radiation for a lesser time
        
        raised rim, consisting of materials ejected but landing very close by
        
        crater wall, the downward-sloping portion of the crater
        
        crater floor, a more or less smooth, flat area, which as it ages accumulates small craters of its own
        
        central peak, found only in some craters with a diameter exceeding 26 km (16 mi); this is generally a splash effect caused by the kinetic energy of the impacting object being turned to heat and melting some lunar material.
        
        "Water body"
        
        Maria (sea)
        
        Do not contain any water, but are believed to have been formed from molten rock from the Moon's mantle
        
        Formed by ancient asteroid impacts on the far side on the Moon that triggered volcanic activity on the opposite (near) side
        
        The largest one is called oceania
        
        Large, dark, regions of the moon
        
        Iron-rich
        
        16% of lunar surface
        
        Lacus (lake)
        
        Smaller basaltic plains of similar origin
      - Soil
        
        Dusty & very fine sand
        
        Resourceful but contains toxic materials
        
        Some surface areas contain ice water
        
        Erodes away from plants :red_flag:
        
        42% oxygen
        
        Can be used as potential building material
        
        Clay-like topsoil
        
        Almost all the rocks at the lunar surface are igneous—they formed from the cooling of lava
    - - Occupation of moon
        
        Longest time on the moon = 75 hours
        
        Goods brought only consists of little more than a few flags, three rovers, a dozen cameras and 96 bags of human waste
      - Planting using lunar soil
        
        Addition of human manure successfully improves the soil quality
        
        Seed & earthworms needs to be brought from earth
      - Can't bring heavy items from earth :red_flag:
        
        Can't bring earth's soil
        
        Fabrication method is limited
        
        Machines would have to mostly be produced on site
      - Fuel can be obtained from extracted hydrogen & oxygen from water
      - Oxygen from soil can be harvested using heat & electricity (NASA tested)
    - - gravity = 1.62 m/s² (1/6 of earth's)
        **Not uniform throughout all surface :
        
        A given structure will have, in gross terms, six times the weight bearing capacity on the Moon as on the Earth. Or, to support a certain loading condition, one-sixth the load bearing strength is required on the Moon as on the Earth.
        
        Soils under reduced gravity may be less consolidated and have less containment
      - <1/3 size of earth
      - Calendar
        
        tidally-locked with Earth, which means that one side is constantly facing towards earth ("the near side")
        "the far side" -> the side that faces away from earth
        
        Regions
        
        Poles
        
        Harvests a lot of ice water
        
        Permanent sunlight on 'high' part of the moon
        
        Ideal for ice water collection & solar panel installation
        
        The 'near' side
        
        Always facing earth
        
        Potential human residence
        
        Dominated by vast volcanic deposit
        
        The 'far' side/ permanently shadowed regions (PSRs)
        
        Dark & always shaded except when moon is between sun & earth
        
        Craters harvests a lot of ice water
        
        Potential water/oxygen production center
        
        Fewer volcanic deposit but more craters
        
        1 day ('ergo') on the moon = 29.5 days on earth
        
        14 days of constant sunlight & 14 days of constant darkness :warning:
        
        1 "year" (1x orbit around earth) = ~27 days on earth
      - Mass = 1/81 of Earth
      - Temperature :red_flag:
        
        120°C during daytime
        
        -130°C at night
        
        -253°C near the poles
      - Surface area ~15.9% of earth's overall land area (excluding the area of earth covered by oceans)
    - - Psychological :red_flag:
        
        Tough to adapt to the different surroundings
        
        As moon is tidally locked to earth, people will only get a single view for the rest of their stay
        
        Having to live in a "bubble" due to the physical hazards
        
        Different gravity
        
        Different foods/resources
        
        Different time system to earth
        (Long day time, long night time)
        
        Lonely
        
        Homesick
        
        Sensory deprivation
      - Physical :red_flag:
        
        Extreme temperatures
        
        Meteorites
        
        Toxic air
        
        Need of special suit - limited mobility
        
        Physically demanding to obtain resources
        
        Radiation
        
        Limited mobility due to low gravity
    - - Maintenance/operation issues :red_flag:
        
        Machines & equipment are extremely limited
        
        Limited material to work with
        
        Logistic challenges
        
        Tools must be able to withstand extreme conditions & temperatures
        
        Equipment development
      - Power, energy, electricity?
        
        Challenge to store power
        Batteries are heavy and can't be brought from earth bc too heavy
        
        Water management system
        
        Infrastructure
        
        Communication
        
        Solar panels
        
        Sunlight isn’t consistent enough, and batteries that operate at freezing temperatures aren’t large enough for typical renewable energy plans to be viable at the Lunar South Pole
      - Food?
        
        Growing produce in lunar soil is still questionable
        
        No animals, might have to rely on smaller organisms
      - Resources recycling
        
        Water is limited & recycling will result in some quality & quantity loss
        
        Size is smaller than earth therefore less resources
      - Extremely costly to send people/goods via spacecraft
      - Construction/structural challenges :red_flag:
        
        Building foundation
        
        Soils under reduced gravity may be less consolidated and have less containment
        
        Large foundation is not recommended due to the limited knowledge about lunar soil
        
        Grading and excavation are difficult & expensive because of the
        lack of traction & the locking nature of the regolith
        
        Ease of construction is important
        (Need modular, simple fabrication)
        
        Use of local material is highly recommended due to limited logistic ability to transport material from earth
        
        Structural sensitivity to temperature differentials between different sections of the same component
        
        Very low-temperature effects and the possibility of brittle fractures
        
        Consideration of new failure modes such as those due to high-velocity micrometeorite impacts. Need to consider new DL, LL, FOS, etc.
        
        Flexibility
        
        Out-gassing for exposed steels and other effects of high vacuum on steel, alloys, and advanced materials
        
        Abrasive dust
      - Protection from radiation & meteorites :red_flag:
        
        Cleaner air
        
        Oxygen-rich enclosement
        
        Design for impact
      - Unknowns
- - - - Adult Male
        
        2200-3000 calories
      - Adult Female
        
        1800-2400 calories
      - Children and Adolescents
        
        1200-2500 calories
      - Elderly Individuals
        
        1600-2200 calories
      - Athletes or Highly Active Individuals
        
        2500-5000 calories
    - - Human Work factors which involve energy conversion
        
        External Factors
        
        Heat Production
        
        Friction
        
        Internal Mechanical Efficiency
        
        Digestion
        
        Circulation
        
        Respiratory System
        
        Temperature Regulation
        
        Urinary System
        
        Organ Function
        
        Hair Growth
        
        Nail Growth
        
        Sleep
      - Average adult consumes 8700 calories of energy = 10.11 kWh
  - - - 72-73 years
    - - 29 deaths per 1000 live births
    - - 85% of population
    - - 95% of population
    - - 8,045,311,447 people approximately
  - - - $68,900 per annum
    - - 55.8% globally
    - - 5.77% globally
    - - 46.9% globally
  - - - $5000
    - - 60% of households own their own homes
  - - - 70% of the global population have access to liveable homes.
    - - 71% of the global population have access to clean water sources
    - - 61% of the global population have access to improved sanitation facilities.
    - - 80% of households have access to electricity and reliable transportation.
  - - - 34% have completed secondary education or higher.
    - - 86.3% for males and females at least 15 years old
    - - 53% of the global population have access to the internet
    - - 60% of adults demonstrate high media literacy skills.
  - - - On average, each person generates 2.5 tons of CO2 emissions per year.
      - The average global carbon footprint per person is around 6.5 to 7.5 metric tons of CO2 per year.
  - - - 0.5 acres per person
    - - 50 acres per person
    - - 100 acres total
    - - 10,000 acres total
  - - - 50% of the population participates in cultural activities at least once a month.
    - - On average, humans on the planet are connected by 6 degrees of separation.
    - - Around 21% of individuals globally engage in volunteer activities
  - - - 2.01 Billion metric tonnes
    - - 360 Million metric tonnes
        
        Roughly 9% is actually recycled with the rest ending up in landfill, oceans, or incinerated.
    - - 53.6 Million metric tonnes
    - - 1.3 Billion metric tonnes
    - - In some developed countries, it can make up as much as 40% of the total waste stream.
    - - Estimates of hazardous waste generation vary widely due to the nature of this waste and reporting inconsistencies across countries.
  - - - 200 crimes per 100,000 humans
    - - 7 homicides per 100,000 humans
  - - - According to the World Health Organization (WHO), as of 2021, depression is the leading cause of disability worldwide.
    - - Approximately 1 in 4 people globally will experience a mental health issue at some point in their lives.
      - An estimated 264 million people of all ages suffer from depression globally.
      - Anxiety disorders are also prevalent, affecting around 284 million people.
      - About 45% of countries have no specific mental health legislation.
      - Low- and middle-income countries often have less than one psychiatrist per 100,000 people.
    - - About 87% of people with major depressive disorder do not receive adequate treatment in low-income countries, and the percentage is about 70% in upper-middle-income countries.
    - - Due to reduced productivity and increased healthcare costs, the global cost of mental health conditions is expected to rise to $6 trillion by 2030.
    - - Suicide is the fourth leading cause of death among individuals aged 15-29
- - - - Oxygen
      - Extremely thin, about 100x less dense than Earth's
        
        Very minimal radiation protection #
        
        radiation exposure: 10-20 rem/year
        
        on earth: 0.5 rem/year
        
        Solar radiation
        
        Cosmic rays radiation
        
        When cosmic rays strikes regolith, it can cause the impacted atoms to emit their own radiation #
        
        The equivalent dose rate from cosmic radiation on Earth's surface at sea level is 0.26 mSv per year = 0.026 rem/year
        
        Composition #
        
        Mars
        
        95.3% CO2
        
        1.9% Nitrogen
        
        1.9% Argon
        
        <1% Oxygen, CO, water, methane, other gases
        
        Earth
        
        78% Nitrogen
        
        21% Oxygen
        
        <0.04% GHG (CO2, methane, NO, ozone)
        
        Risk of meteorites impact
      - Atmospheric pressure = 6.35 mbar (about 0.6% Earth's)
        
        At Elysium Planitia
        
        Lowest during summer (warm air is less dense)
        
        Lowest average = 635 Pa
        
        Peaks at the end of autumn
        
        Highest average = 790 Pa
        
        Ranging 600-810 Pa = 6-8.1 mbar
        
        Earth's = 1013.2 mbar
      - ** Mars used to be much warmer & wetter as it used to have thick atmosphere → thinned out over time because it is vulnerable to pressure from solar wind - due to:
        
        Small gravity
        
        Lack of global magnetic field (effect of cooler climate) #
      - Atmospheric opacity (tau)
        
        typical value = 0 to 1
        
        During dust storm can reach to 5
        At this level, <1% of sunlight reaches the rover's solar panels
        
        Elysium Planitia (low plain near equator)
        
        Spring & summer ~0.5
        Rises in Autumn to 1-1.5 (highest average)
        Peaks in Winter at 2 but lower average
    - - Temperature
        
        -153°C to 20°C : caused by
        
        Snow at poles
        
        Night time are always extremely cold even in the summer, can reach to -90 deg celcius
        
        Avg day-time temp
        
        Acidalia Planitia ~17 °C
        
        Schiaparelli crater ~2 °C
        
        Elysium Planum ~6 °C
        
        Hellas Plain ~-98 °C
        
        Avg night-time temp
        
        Acidalia Planitia ~-40 °C
        
        Schiaparelli crater ~-110 °C
        
        Elysium Planum ~-80 °C
        
        Hellas Plain ~-115 °C
        
        Varies depending on the location & season
        
        Elysium Planitia (low plain near equator)
        
        Peak = 5 deg Celicus during autumn
        
        Highest average during summer
        
        Lowest during spring about -110 deg Celcius
        
        Gale crater
        
        Peak at 20 deg Celcius
        Lowest at -127 deg Celcius
        
        Highest average = -5.7 deg Celcius
        Lowest average = -78.5 deg Celcius
      - Only gets 1/2 of the sunlight that Earth gets
      - Time
        
        1 day (sol) = 24 hours 37 minutes
        
        1 year = 687 Earth days
      - Climate regions
        
        Classification
        
        A = Glacial (permanent ice cap)
        
        B = Polar (covered by frost during the winter which sublimates during the summer)
        
        C = North (mild) [Transitional (Ca) and C South (extreme) Transitional (Cb)]
        
        D = Tropical
        
        E = Low albedo tropical
        
        F = Subpolar Lowland (Basins)
        
        G = Tropical Lowland (Chasmata);
        
        H = Subtropical Highland (Mountain)
        
        Mainly based on temperature. Other factors: dust distribution, water vapor content, occurence of snow, albedo & elevations
      - Wind
        
        Speed
        
        Elysium Planitia (low plain near equator)
        
        Average wind speed 3-10 m/s
        
        Lowest at the end of winter/beginning of spring
        
        Peak during summer = 30 m/s
        
        The Viking and Pathfinder observations showed that the mean wind speed on Mars is between 2.2 to 8.9 miles per hour which is quite weak
        
        The strongest Martian storms produces about 60 miles per hour, which is less than half the speed of some hurricane wind forces on Earth.
        
        Direction
        
        Elysium Planitia (low plain near equator)
        
        Towards south in spring & summer
        Towards west coming to north from autumn to winter
        
        Dust storms (dust devils)
        
        in spring or summer, last for weeks
        
        Sharp drop in air density — about a 7% deviation below pre-dust storm
        
        Sky clarity drops ~18% below pre-storm
        
        Tau value can reach 5, which means only <1% of sunlight that reaches Mars can reach the rover’s solar panels
        
        Wind regions
        
        Polar regions = windiest areas
        
        Katabatic winds = Cold, dense air that flows down from the polar ice caps, can reach speeds of up to 100 kilometers per hour.
        
        Equatorial regions = also windy, but not as strong
        
        The winds in the equatorial region are caused by the difference in temperature between the day and night sides of Mars.
        
        Mid- Latitudes = Least windy regions on mars
        
        The winds in the mid-latitudes are caused by the interaction between the polar winds and the equatorial winds.
    - - Observable & repeatable weather pattern
      - 4 seasons
        
        Spring
        
        Ice caps starting to melt (CO2 released from the melting ice makes the atmosphere thicker)
        
        Summer
        
        Southern summer hotter & quicker than northern
        
        Extra heat in the southern hemisphere causes greater turbulence and drives stronger winds, stirring up the largest storms
        
        Southern summer → can reach 20°C by day but drop to –80°C at night!
        
        Ice caps melt & more frequent dust storms
        
        Northern summer → clouds can form, especially around the top of volcanoes
        
        Autumn
        
        Beginning of autumn (end of summer) - a lot of dust devils
        
        Ice caps grow as temperature drops
        
        Winter
        
        Cold temperature → carbon dioxide atmosphere turns to dry ice frost (carbon dioxide ice) that clings to the surface
        
        Mars’s carbon dioxide frost doesn’t melt. When temperatures warm, it converts directly from a solid to a gas (sublimation)
        
        CO2 frost is tiny, cube-shaped and are are the only kind of snow that blankets the ground
        
        In the middle of winter and at night, relative humidities can reach as high as 70%
      - Different length #
        
        The hemisphere that is tilted towards the Sun at the time of closest approach (perihelion) will experience a hotter summer than the other hemisphere, which will be tilted towards the Sun at the furthest approach (aphelion).
        
        As planets travel fastest when closest to the Sun, the hemisphere with the hotter summer will also have a shorter summer. Mars's southern hemisphere is tilted towards the Sun at the time of closest approach.
        
        In the south, summers are hot and quick, whereas winters are long and cold.
        
        northern hemisphere more temperate than the southern hemisphere
        
        Spring 194 days
        Summer 178 days
        Autumn 142 days
        Winter 154 days
        (day=sol)
      - Minimal indication of season changing
  - - - The Martian surface is also very dusty, which can also make it difficult to see the stars.
      - The seasons on Mars can also affect the positions of the stars, so scientists need to take this into account when using astronomical navigation.
      - Atmosphere of Mars is very thin, so the stars appear dimmer than they do on Earth. This makes it more difficult to measure their positions accurately.
  - - - Many craters are believed to have once held lakes (begin with a bowl shape, after millions of years collecting snow, they appear flat and shallow)
      - A lot in the southern hemisphere
        
        Largest = Hellas basin
        1600x2000 km (roughly twice the size of Alaska)
      - Most are impact craters
      - Types
        
        Impact craters
        
        when a meteoroid, asteroid, or comet collides
        
        that most craters on Mars were formed by meteorite impact early in Mars' history, but some may be from more recent impacts.
        
        Volcanic craters
        
        vent areas at the summit of a volcano
      - On earth, craters may fill with water to form lake or pond
      - Only about 120 impact craters have been identified on Earth, scientists estimate that on the surface of Mars, there are more than 43,000 impact craters with diameters greater than 5 kilometers (3 miles), and probably over a quarter of a million impact craters that are similar in size to Meteor Crater
    - - Near the poles (TOO EXTEME)
        
        +
        
        Lots of water
        
        -
        
        Too cold
      - On a plain
        
        Probably the most reasonable & best choice to build a habitat, as it is not too cold, the terrain is most likely not too challenging
        
        Southern hemisphere
        
        Hottest summer
        
        Northern hemisphere
        
        Most temperate
        
        Equator
        
        The warmest
        
        Furthest from both polar
      - The warmest
      - Inside a crater
    - - Estimates are derived from the hydrogen abundance measured by the neutron spectrometer
        
        Acidalia Planitia ~3%
        
        Schiaparelli Crater ~7%
        
        Elysium Planum ~6%
        
        Hellas Plain ~3%
        
        60° latitude north or south (polar regions) → 30-60% (HIGHEST)
      - Compared to the elevations → lower areas tend to have less water content
      - Compared to the temperatures → coldest region has higher water content
    - - North hemisphere
        
        “Northern” hemisphere is smooth and flat and on average 6 km lower than the rugged highlands of the south.
      - Equator
        
        The warmest
      - North pole
        
        larger than south pole, 1100 km diameter ice cap
        
        permanent year-round water ice + CO2 ice in winter
      - South hemisphere #
      - South pole
        
        permanent year-round water ice + CO2 ice in winter
        
        400 km diameter ice cap
    - - Noachian: 3.8-3.5 billion years ago
        Highlands, many impact craters
      - Hesperian: 3.55-1.8 billion years ago
        Extensive lava plains, different models of the rate of meteorite falls
      - Amazonian: 1.8 billion years ago - present
        Few meteorite impact craters, but otherwise are quite varied:
        Formation of the huge volcano Olympus Mons, lava flows elsewhere on Mars, formation of the landslides, and formation of the broad plains and sand dunes near Mars' poles
    - - As a result of the sudden release of energy in the planet's interior, such as the result of plate tectonics, which most quakes on Earth originate from, or possibly from hotspots such as Olympus Mons or the Tharsis Montes (volcanoes). #
      - Insight report
        
        In (Earth’s) September 2021, one of the biggest, longest-lasting marsquakes ever was detected. Seismic waves from the magnitude 4.2 shook InSight for nearly an hour and a half.
        
        Most recent (and the largest): Magnitude 5 temblor on May 4, 2022, the 1,222nd Martian day, or sol, of the mission.
        
        More than 1,313 quakes has been detected since landing on Mars in November 2018 (as of 2022) → only in its area
      - EARTH: **20,000 earthquakes around the globe each year, or approximately 55 per day, can reach to magnitude 9
    - - Upper mantle (40-1015 km)
        
        Dense olivine-rich rocks, heated close to their melting point
      - Transition zone (1015-1560 km)
        
        High pressure at depth coverts rocks to even denser forms
      - Crust (0-40 km)
        
        Basaltic rocks, enriched in radioactive elements
      - Core (1560-3390 km)
        
        About 10% larger than scientists expected, composed mostly of molten iron, but with substantial amounts of other lighter elements
  - - - Fine-grained material that covers the surface of the planet. It is made up of broken rock, dust, and other small particles.
        
        it contains a lot of perchlorates, which are salts that can be harmful to humans.
      - typically 10 m thick
      - made up of silicon dioxide, ferric oxide, aluminum oxide, calcium oxide, and sulfur oxide
        
        very dry with water content of less than 1%
      - Building n the surface with the regolith: any disturbance would likely cause a lot of dust to be kicked up. This dust could be harmful to humans and could also damage equipment. #
    - - Cloud
        
        Weather Impact
        
        Dry ice clouds reflects the amount of sunlight that reaches the Martian surface
        
        Colder temperature patterns that range depending on the altitude and time of day
        
        Associated with Martian winter seasons
        
        Gas Release
        
        Dry Ice adds to the existing CO2 content in the Martian atmosphere.
        
        negatively impact energy generation
        
        Dust Contamination
      - polar ice caps
        
        Extracting water from subsurface ice deposits involves drilling through Martian regolith
        
        NASA found polar ice caps might contain trapped gases like methane
  - - - Phobos
      - Deimos
      - No Impact on weather, moons are too small and too far away to have much of an effect
    - - Orbit
        
        Orbit is more eliptical than Earth's
        
        Perihelion = closer distance
        Aphelion = further
        
        Causing different weather length depending on the location
      - Counter clockwise
  - - - Perchlorates impact on food production #
        
        Crop Selection limiting agricultural biodiversity
        
        toxic to plant cells
        
        disrupts soil microorganisms which are essential in the soil ecosystems
        
        high salt content can lead to a reduction in water movement into plant roots, thus affecting water absorption by the plants
    - - Oxidation: This is the reaction of a substance with oxygen. Oxidation can occur on the surface of Mars, where the iron oxide in the soil can react with oxygen in the atmosphere to form rust.
      - Hydrolysis: This is the reaction of water with a compound to break it down into simpler molecules. Hydrolysis can occur in the Martian soil, where water molecules can react with minerals to form new compounds
      - Methanogenesis: This is the process by which microbes produce methane from carbon dioxide and hydrogen. Methanogenesis has been detected in the Martian soil, and it is thought to be one of the ways that methane is produced on the planet.
      - Photosynthesis is not possible on Mars today, but it may have been possible in the past when the atmosphere was thicker and warmer.
  - - - Gravitational acceleration = 3.71 m/s^2 (38% of the gravitational acceleration on earth)
        Lower wind velocity on Mars, but much stronger than earth #
      - Has no magnetic field #
    - - Surface area = 144.4 million km² (Earth’s = 510.1 million km2)
      - Mass = 1/10 of Earth’s
      - Diameter = 6790 km (slightly more than 1/2 size of Earth) → 2nd smallest planet in the solar system
      - Axis of rotation = 25.2° (Earth’s = 23.4°)
- - - - Geothermal
        
        Mars has geothermal heat emanating from its interior. Geothermal systems can harness this heat to generate electricity.
        
        Geothermal energy offers a continuous and reliable source of power, especially in regions with higher heat flow. It can supplement other energy sources.
        
        Often included with terrestrial geothermal resources are geothermal heat pumps, also known as ground-source or geoexchange heat pumps.
        
        They are unlikely to be practical for Mars, as used on Earth, where the mean annual surface temperature is -63°C, significantly different from anticipated temperatures for space heating or cooling.
        
        No direct measurements currently exist of subsurface temperatures or heat flow on Mars. A rough idea of the global heat loss from a planet may be obtained from consideration of the internal heat budget of the planet.
      - Solar
        
        Solar panels can convert sunlight into electricity. Mars receives about 43% of the solar energy that Earth does due to its greater distance from the Sun. Deploying large solar arrays on the Martian surface can harness sunlight for power generation.
        
        Mean irradience on Mars is calulated to be around 112 w/m2 when taking into acount night cycles, dust storms and distance from the sun.
        
        Each sol on Mars will provide 0.829kWh/m2 given the panel is 30% efficient.
      - Nuclear
        
        The Multi-Mission Radioisotope Thermoelectric Generator (MMRTG) used on these rovers is approximately 2.1 feet (0.65 meters) tall, about 2 feet (0.61 meters) wide, and weighs around 100 pounds (45 kilograms).
        
        Nuclear reactors or radioisotope thermoelectric generators (RTGs) can provide steady and long-lasting power. RTGs convert the heat generated from the natural decay of radioactive isotopes into electricity.
        
        These RTGs use Uranium-235 that has a natural radioactive decay that produces heat that is then converted into electricity using thermoelectric materials. In the first year, the Mars rover RTGs can produce 963,600kwh of energy.
        
        The MMRTG provides a nominal power output of about 110 watts of electrical power at the beginning of the mission, with a gradual decline over time due to the decay of the radioactive isotopes.
        
        Nuclear power can provide consistent energy even in harsh conditions and during Martian nights. It’s ideal for high-power applications and long-term settlements, though it presents challenges in terms of safety and regulatory considerations.
      - Kinetic Energy Harvesting
        
        Compared to some other energy generation methods, such as nuclear power systems, kinetic energy harvesting often involves simpler mechanisms with fewer regulatory and safety considerations.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting doesn't rely on specific lighting conditions (as with solar power) or heat sources (as with nuclear power), making it adaptable to a wide range of environments and scenarios.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting can serve as a backup power source in case primary power systems experience failures or interruptions. This redundancy can enhance mission reliability and safety.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting systems are often quiet and produce minimal vibrations or noise, making them suitable for missions requiring sensitive instruments or precise operations.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting systems can be designed with lightweight components, which helps minimize the impact on the overall mass of the spacecraft or satellite.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting typically requires moving parts that can store and release kinetic energy. It's especially useful in scenarios where there is continuous motion that can be harnessed.
        
        Kinetic energy harvesting involves capturing the motion of a system (such as a spacecraft or vehicle) and converting it into electricity. This can be done using flywheels, spinning wheels, or other mechanical systems.
      - Thermoelectric Generators
        
        TEGs generate electricity directly from a temperature difference without involving any moving parts or working fluids. They are simple and reliable but are generally less efficient than some other methods.
        
        TEGs are suitable for applications where there is a consistent temperature difference, such as waste heat recovery from industrial processes or harnessing temperature variations in space.
        
        Thermoelectric generators convert temperature differences into electrical voltage using the Seebeck effect. When a temperature gradient exists across a thermoelectric material, it creates a voltage difference that generates an electric current.
        
        TEGs can serve as backup power sources, ensuring continued operation in case primary power systems experience failures. This enhances mission reliability and safety.
        
        TEGs can be designed in various sizes and configurations, allowing for customization to fit different mission requirements. They are compact and lightweight, making them suitable for small spacecraft or microsatellites.
        
        TEGs operate silently and do not produce vibrations, making them suitable for missions requiring minimal disturbances to sensitive equipment or scientific instruments.
        
        TEGs can use waste heat from various systems on a spacecraft, converting this otherwise lost energy into useful electricity. They are also compatible with many heat sources, including nuclear reactors, radioisotope heat sources, and fuel cells.
      - Wind Power
        
        Mars has a thin atmosphere, about 1% the density of Earth's atmosphere. While this means there is less air mass to drive wind, the lower gravity on Mars can potentially enable stronger winds for a given pressure difference.
        
        Wind turbines designed for Mars would need to account for the differences in atmospheric density and gravity. Turbine blades would likely need to be larger or rotate at higher speeds to capture sufficient energy from the available wind.
        
        Wind power potential on Mars is high as the average wind speed is 35km/h. This is significantly higher than Earth’s average of 12km/h
        
        Mars' harsh environment, including dust storms and extreme temperature variations, would pose challenges for the maintenance and durability of wind turbine components.
  - - - Looking just at electricity usage, Australians use is an average of 9,138 kWh annually while Americans use 10,632 kWh per person.
      - The main contributors to energy usage on an individual level are travel, cooking, heating and cooling, lighting and electronics.
      - The amount of electricity a human requires on Earth can vary significantly depending on factors such as lifestyle, location, household size, and the availability of modern amenities.
        
        Household size #
        
        Household sizes has a significant impact on daily electricty use. A larger household will have less kWh used per person resulting in a more sustainable power usage per capita
        
        A person living by themselves will use twice as much electricity per capita compared toa person living with 5 other people.
        
        1 person household uses ~8kWh per person
        
        2 person household uses ~6.5kWh per person
        
        3 person uses ~5kWh per person
        
        6 person household which uses ~4kWh per person.
        
        Lifestyle
        
        Studies show a relationship between income and electricity use as the distribution of the two are near identical
        
        Cultural norms and behaviors can impact energy use. For instance, regions with a tradition of energy conservation might have lower consumption patterns.
        
        Location
        
        Building Design
        
        Local building codes and architectural styles can affect energy efficiency. Homes designed to withstand extreme temperatures or incorporate energy-efficient features can influence energy consumption.
        
        Infrastructure #
        
        The type and efficiency of energy infrastructure, including power plants and transmission lines, can impact the energy mix and overall consumption. Regions with outdated infrastructure might rely more on conventional energy sources.
        
        Climate #
        
        The climate of your region plays a substantial role. In colder climates, you might use more energy for heating during the winter, while in hotter climates, air conditioning becomes a major energy demand during the summer. Both heating and cooling requirements can substantially affect your energy usage.
        
        Costs
        
        Energy prices can vary significantly based on location due to factors like supply and demand, regulations, and availability of resources. Higher energy costs might encourage more efficient energy use.
    - - Temperature Extremes
        
        Mars experiences extreme temperature fluctuations, affecting the efficiency and performance of energy systems and requiring additional energy for heating or cooling equipment.
      - Energy Conciousness
        
        Given the constraints of Martian energy resources, individuals would likely become more energy-conscious, optimizing their energy use to ensure sustainable consumption and minimize waste.
      - Communication #
        
        Communication with Earth and recreational activities that rely on electricity would require energy-efficient technologies to ensure connectivity and leisure while managing energy use.
      - Long Days/Nights on Mars
        
        With longer nights, the duration of colder temperatures is prolonged, increasing the demand for heating systems to maintain comfortable living conditions within habitats. This results in higher energy consumption for heating.
        
        Longer nights mean more hours without natural sunlight, requiring the use of artificial lighting for various tasks and activities. This leads to higher energy consumption for lighting systems.
        
        For exploration activities, such as nighttime observations or mobility of rovers, additional energy might be required to power lighting, sensors, and movement systems.
        
        Due to the axis of rotation being larger than Earth's, length of days and nights are affected more during seasons.
  - - - Age
        
        Elderly people require less energy than young people.
      - Weight
        
        Heavier people require more energy than lighter people.
      - Gender
        
        Males require around 10% more energy than females.
      - Activity Level
        
        Active people require more energy than sedentary people.
      - Pregnancy
        
        People who are in their second trimester of pregnancy require an addition 1400kj per day.
        
        People who are in their third trimester of pregnancy require an addition 1900kj per day.
    - - Food # #
        
        Carbs
        
        Carbohydrates are broken down into glucose, which is the primary source of energy for the body. Foods rich in carbohydrates include grains, fruits, vegetables, and legumes.
        
        Proteins
        
        Proteins are broken down into amino acids, which can be converted into glucose or used for energy. While proteins are not the body’s primary energy source, they are essential for growth, repair, and various metabolic processes.
        
        Fats
        
        Dietary fats are broken down into fatty acids, which serve as an energy source and are stored in adipose tissue. Sources of dietary fats include oils, nuts, seeds, and fatty animal products.
      - Energy reserves
        
        Humans can get energy from breaking down stored metabolites and muscle tissue.
        
        In the absence of food, the body relies on its energy reserves and various metabolic processes to provide the necessary energy for maintaining essential functions
        
        It’s important to note that while the body can use these alternative energy sources to maintain vital functions in the short term, prolonged periods of fasting or severe calorie restriction can lead to significant health risks, including nutrient deficiencies, muscle breakdown, and metabolic imbalances.
  - - - Mechanical energy storage using flywheels involves spinning a rotor at high speeds to store kinetic energy, which can be converted back to electricity when needed.
    - - Compressing air into underground chambers during surplus energy periods and releasing it through turbines to generate electricity during energy deficits.
    - - Rechargeable batteries can store excess energy generated during daylight hours for use during nighttime or periods of low energy generation.
      - Lithium-ion, nickel-metal hydride, and other advanced battery technologies could be adapted for Martian conditions.
    - - Using excess energy to pump water from a lower reservoir to a higher one, then releasing it through turbines to generate electricity when needed.
    - - Electrolyzing water using surplus electricity to produce hydrogen gas, which can be stored and later used in fuel cells to generate electricity.
    - - Storing electrical energy in a magnetic field created by a superconducting coil, which can be discharged quickly when needed.
    - - Elevating masses during excess energy periods and then allowing them to descend, converting potential energy into electricity when needed.
- - - - Survveillance and observation
      - Crane
      - Gathering material
      - Form work: cut, split, weld,
      - Dome Structures for optimal structural integerity
      - Electricity and power production
    - - Inflatable/foldable habitat
        
        Construction: structure fabricated on earth & brought to moon → air pressured to inflate/assembled on the moon
        Material: mylar, kevlar (synthetic fiber)
    - - 3D Printers: Scaffolding 3D Printing for structures of custom sizes
      - 3D Printers: That can construct in an agile and custom manner in a 3d approach.
      - 3D Printer: That can construct components and parts; metals, plastics and construction materials
  - - - Drones
      - Bore/Mining Robots
      - Wheeled robot- carrier
      - Inventory robot
      - Humanoide or arm robot(2+ sockets and extenders)
      - 3D Printing machines
      - Satellite that can move
      - foundation/ support system/ truss system/ truss building robot
      - Container, tanks, storage
      - Equipment accessory arms: welding, drill, claw, shovel, pickaxe, magnet, mixer, forge, cast
  - - - Hematite, Magnetite Other Oxide
      - Ice water
      - Sedimentary Rocks
      - Volcanic Rocks: Basalt, Shale, Sandstone, Conglomerate
      - Minerals:iron, silicon, magnesium, calcium, Silica, Perchlorates
      - Marian concrete
        
        Making Martian Clay Bricks
        
        The layers of clay naturally align under high pressure, allowing electrostatic forces to hold them together. By slowly squeezing and compressing the dry clay layers together, a solid geopolymer brick is formed - one that is able to withstand rocket blasts.
        
        Making Martian Concrete Using Soil, Rocks, and a Plant Glue
        
        On Mars, a versatile adhesive can be produced through various methods. One approach involves cultivating crops like corn within aquaponic greenhouses and transforming plant sugars into a biopolymer-based adhesive. Alternatively, high-density polyethylene plastic can be generated from atmospheric carbon dioxide and hydrogen sourced from water ice in Martian soil.
        
        Lasers and Microwaves (Advanced Martian Concrete Tech)
        
        To do this, the Martian soil is put into a container and heated using an electric furnace or laser, causing the particles to fuse together and form a ceramic-like structure. This process is called sintering and requires a lot of energy.
        
        Turning Martian Sulfur into Concrete
        
        The sulfur needs to be heated to a liquid state at around 240°C/464°F and mixed with Martian soil in a 50/50 ratio. The resulting concrete has a compressive strength that is twice as high as that of Earth concrete and hardens quickly, making it ideal for 3D printing. It can also be remelted and recycled for reuse as habitats and structures on Mars evolve.
    - - Piezoelectric Materials
      - Thermochromic Materials
      - Shape Memory Alloys
      - Photochromic Materials
      - Electrorheological Fluids
- - - - Capable of carrying up to 150 metric tonnes completely reusable payload and 250 metric tonnes expendable
      - Composed of SpaceX's Starship spacecraft and Super Heavy rocket
      - Most powerful launch vehicle ever developed
      - Starship will be able to transport up to 100 people on long-duration interplanetary flights
      - When on Mars, it can be refueled using Mars local resources of H2O and CO2
      - The Starship spacecraft can be refilled in low-Earth orbit before leaving for Mars
      - Could potentially be used one day for travelling anywhere on Mars in a very short amount of time
      - Has 1200 metric tonne propellant capacity
    - - It is powered by 33 Raptor engines using sub-cooled liquid methane and liquid oxygen
      - The Super Heavy rocket is completely reusable and after launching the Starship spacecraft into space, it will re-enter Earth’s atmosphere and land back at the launch site
      - The Super Heavy Rocket is the booster of the Space X Starship launch system
      - Has 3400 metric tonne propellant capacity
  - - - Used to test if a vehicle would be able to fly in Mars' atmosphere
      - Paving the way for newer more advanced flying vehicles that could potentially transport people one day
      - Able to identify points of interest that may be hard to access
    - - Can travel very fast between locations (potentially up to 1200 km/h)
      - Could be used as direct transportation between different locations or between domes on Mars
      - No drag in the tube to slow down the train
      - Very expensive transportation method
      - Hyperloop train travels in a vacuum
    - - It has an electric motor that's powered by solar panels and a 700 Volt battery
      - It contains life support systems, communication and navigation systems
      - It can reach a top speed of 110 km/h but is unlikely to travel more than 24 km/h on Mars
      - It can carry up to 4 people at a time
      - It was designed to relate to the conditions and resources on Mars
      - Has 6 open structured wheels
      - Mock lab in the back of the rover to conduct experiments
      - Weighs 2500 kg
    - - It has the ability to drill and mine water ice
      - Very useful in the process of identifying, extracting and purifying water
      - Used to extract resources such as minerals and water ice
      - It can be used to recycle waste water
- - - - mars atmosphere 95.3% carbon dioxide and 0.13% oxygen
      - leafy tree produces 5-10kg of oxygen a year through photosynthesis
        
        mature tree can absorb 13-22kg of carbon dioxide a year, could be more on mars since there is so much carbon
      - a human need approximately 5,558kg of oxygen a year
        
        for 200 person habitat we need 1,111,600 kg a year
        
        we would need approximately 138,950 trees to provide enough oxygen for a 200 person habitat
    - - Self sustaining crop system
        
        light
        
        Natural mars sun
        
        Artificial lighting
        
        Solar powered
        
        Water
        
        Mars water extracted from ice caps
        
        Soil
        
        Mars regolith
        
        Food scarps/human waste for compost
        
        Climate
        
        Radiation protection
        
        crops in domes
        
        temperature
        
        Cellular based food production
    - - solar
      - wind
        
        wind turbine
      - nuclear
        
        nuclear reactor
        
        radioisotope thermoelectric generator
      - batteries
    - - Resuable & recyclable materials
      - system to convert recyclable material to raw materials/inputs for other systems
      - Food&human waste used for composting
  - - - mars regolith
        
        Locally sourced, lots available
        
        Provides radiant shielding
        
        Input for 3D printing
        
        may contain ice water, minerals and metals
        
        water extracted can be used for drinking, irrigation and oxygen production
        
        minerals and metals can be used for manufacturing
        
        input for crops system
        
        Provides thermal insulation
- - - - Filteration:Boiling, Filtration, Reverse Osmosis, Distillation,Desalination
      - Exposure:UV (Ultraviolet) Purification,Activated Carbon Adsorption
      - Chemically:Chlorination, Chemical Coagulation,Iodine Treatment
    - - Rainwater, Atmospheric Water
      - Underground:Groundwater,Underground,Reservoirs, Boreholes, Cisterns and Tanks
      - Bodies of water: Rivers, Streams, Lakes, Ponds, Oceans, Seas, Snowmelt, Springs, Glaciers and Ice Caps
  - - - fusion
      - fission
    - - hydropower
      - Mechanical
      - Solar
      - biomass
      - Wind
    - - Oil and gases
      - wood
      - fossil fuels
      - Hydrogen fuel
  - - - Aquaponics
      - Agroforestry
      - Urban Farming
      - Intercropping and Polyculture
    - - Genetic Engineering
      - Biopesticides and Biological Control
    - - Vertical Farming
      - In door stables/ semi factory farming
      - under ground farming
    - - Hydroponics and Aeroponics
      - Robotics and Automation
      - Precision Agriculture
      - Soilless Cultivation
      - Waste Recycling and Circular Agriculture
    - - Livestock
      - Fish
      - Crops
      - Algae Farming
      - Insect Farming
      - Mushrooms and myclium
  - - - Ice Algae
      - aquatic organisms
      - Plants
    - - Air Intake and Exhaust
      - Filtration, Contaminant Removal
      - Temperature and Humidity Control
      - Carbon Dioxide Removal & oxygen enrichment
      - Air Circulation and Mixing
- - - - exercise
      - sleep
      - Clean food