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Approaches in Psychology; - Coggle Diagram
Approaches in Psychology;
Origins of psychology;
Psychology definition = The scientific study of the human mind and its functions, especially those functions affecting behaviour in a given context.
Wilhelm Wundt;
In 1879 he opened the Institute for Experimental Psychology at the University of Leipzig (Germany).
He separated psychology from philosophy by analysing the workings of the mind in a more structured way. With the emphasis being on objective measurement and control.
He believed in reductionism, he believed that the consciousness could be broken down to its basic elements without sacrificing any properties of the whole.
Introspection;
Wundt used introspection to study sensation and perception.
Participants were asked to describe their experiences when presented with stimuli.
The methods were objective and used controlled stimuli.
His methodology led to the beginnings of other psychological approaches.
Evaluation of introspection;
(Weakness) Produces subjective data, as the participants are recalling their own conscious thoughts meaning that results vary from participant to participant.
Psychology as a science;
1 = Ask a question.
2 = State a hypothesis.
3 = Conduct an experiment.
4 = Analyse the results.
5 = Make a conclusion.
Key terms;
Objective = Basing findings on fact rather than opinions.
Control = Observations should take place under controlled settings.
Predictability = Scientists should be able to use the results of a study to predict future behaviour.
Hypothesis testing = Theories generate hypothesis that can be tested to support or disprove the theory.
Replication = Each experiment should be able to be repeated in the exact same way.
Empirical methods = Phenomenon that can be observed and measured. Testing scientifically.
Evaluation of the scientific method;
(Strength) Knowledge acquired is accurate and produces facts due to the use of objective and controlled studies.
(Strength)Allows the causes of behaviour to be established and theories developed which can be tested and modified. Once the cause is established treatments can be developed. Eg - the development of psychological therapies for depression.
(Weakness) Focuses on being objective and conducting research in strictly controlled environments. This tells us little about how people will behave in their natural environments.
(Weakness) There are certain areas of the human behaviour and mind that can not be observed therefore cannot be measured using the scientific method.
Behavioural approach;
Behaviourist approach = Rejects the vagueness of introspection focusing instead of observable events eg; stimuli and responses and the conditions under which learning would be most likely to occur. With a focus on how learning occurs this approach if often referred to as 'learning theory'.
Behaviourists believed that much of human behaviour could be explained in terms of a basic form of leaning known as conditioning, which involves the formation of learned associations between stimuli in the environment and an organisms responses.
Classical conditioning - When a neutral stimulus is consistently paired with an unconditioned stimulus so that it eventually takes on the properties of this stimulus and produce a conditioned response.
Example;
Before conditioning = An unconditioned stimulus (the food) leads to an unconditioned response (salivation). A neutral stimulus (ringing bell) produces no response.
During conditioning = Pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus creates an association with the unconditioned response.
After conditioning = After regular pairing, the neutral stimulus will become a conditioned stimulus and will lead to its own conditioned response.
Stimulus generalisation - Pavlov found that other stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (eg; bells of a different pitch and tone) will also lead to the conditioned response even though they have never been directly associated with the unconditioned stimulus.
Stimulus discrimination - If many different neutral stimuli are experienced, but only one is reliably paired with the unconditioned stimulus, there can be stimulus discrimination whereby only one specific stimulus will become the conditioned stimulus.
Temporal contiguity - The unconditioned stimulus and neutral stimulus have to be paired together at or around the same time for the association to be created.
Spontaneous recovery - Following extinction, if the conditioned stimuli and unconditioned stimuli are then paired together once again, the link between them is made much more quickly.
Operant conditioning - A method of learning that involves punishments and rewards for behaviour, and associations made through behaviour and consequence.
Positive reinforcement;
A response or behaviour that is strengthened by rewards that leads to the repetition of that desired behaviour.
Example; Giving a rat food pellets for pulling a lever.
Negative reinforcement;
The termination of an unpleasant state, removal of an adverse stimulus which is unpleasant to the person. Where you repeat behaviour to avoid an unpleasant outcome.
Example; Having a shower to avoid comments like 'Oi you smell'.
Positive punishment;
When you give someone a punishment or adverse stimulus to discourage a behaviour.
Example; Shouting at a student because they have for the 3rd lesson forgotten a pen.
Negative punishment;
Involving taking something desireable or good away from an individual to discourage behaviour.
Example; A teacher takes away a students phone to discourage them getting the phone out in class.
Schedules of reinforcement - Reinforcing every response in a useful way to establish the learning of a particular response but is difficult to maintain over time. A partial reinforcement schedule (eg; every 10th time a behaviour is shown) would reinforce regularly and be easier to maintain over time.
Evaluation;
(Strength) Classical conditioning has led to successful treatments such as systematic desensitisation.
(Strength + Weakness) Has been shown in lab studies, resulting in objective data yet it could be unreliable due to demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
(Weakness) States that free will is an illusion, which can have negative effects on someones mental health.
(Weakness) Doesn't take into account our biology and genetic causes for behaviour.
Social learning theory - Suggests that we learn by observing role models and imitating behaviours that are rewarded.
Modelling;
In order for social learning to take place someone must model the attitude or behaviour to be learned. A live model may be a parent/teacher. A symbolic model would be someone portrayed in the media such as an action hero. For a model to be successful the person learning with them. In that they view themselves to be similar to the model.
Vicarious reinforcement;
Bandura and Walters (1963) noticed children who observed role models who were rewarded for their aggressive actions were much more likely to imitate the behaviour shown by the model. Vicarious reinforcement therefore is when you behaviour is influenced by the perceived reward you may receive for imitating it.
Meditational processes;
These are cognitive processes in which the observer forms mental representations of the behaviour displayed and the probable consequences of imitating the behaviour.
Step 1 = Attention, we pay attention to a role model who share characteristics (identify) with.
Step 2 = Retention, we store the observation in the long term memory.
Step 3 = Reproduction, we must be able to physically reproduce the behaviour we have seen and stored.
Step 4 = Motivation, we must be motivated to reproduce the behaviour eg; vicarious reinforcement.
Key study; Bandura, Ross and Ross (1961)
Evaluation;
(Strength) Social learning theory supports that all behaviour is learned from our environment.
(Weakness) Behaviour is culturally different across the world.
(Strength + Weakness) Bobo doll experiment took place in a lab, strength as it produces objective results. Weakness due to possible demand characteristics and social desirability bias.
Cognitive approach;
Cognitive psychology is;
The scientific study of the mind as an information processor.
To that end cognitive psychologists build models to explain how people think.
Cognitive psychologists use experimental procedures and methods to test behaviour scientifically.
It is a reductionist approach.
Assumptions about the approach;
1 = It is important to know the meditational processes of organisms (thought processes).
2 = Psychology should be seen as a science and we should use objective, empirical methods that can be replicated.
3 = Humans are informational processors, just like computers.
Theoretical models - Computer model;
Computers
- Input --> Process --> Output.
Humans
- Input --> Process --> Output.
Same process yet humans have emotions so their reaction will be different to a computer based on their previous life experiences.
Schemas;
A schema is a 'packet of information' that helps us organise and interpret information. They are based on our previous experience.
Babies are born with simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as grasping and sucking.
Schemas develop and evolve with experience. They become more detailed and sophisticated.
Event schemas;
Are focused on patterns of behaviour that should be followed for certain events. This acts much like a script informing you of what you should do, how you should act and what you should say in a particular situation.
Self schemas;
Are focused on your knowledge about yourself. This can include both what you know about your current self as well as ideas about your idealised or future self.
Person schemas;
Are focused on specific individuals. For example, your schema for your friend might include information about their appearance, their behaviours, their personality and their preferences.
Social schemas;
Include general knowledge about how people behave in social in certain social situations.
Cognitive neuroscience;
This is the scientific study of the influence of brain structure (neuro) on mental processes (cognition).
Advances in brain scanning technology means scientists have been able to describe the neurological basis of mental processing.
Eg; research into memory has linked episodic and semantic memories to the prefrontal cortex in the brain.
Also it has been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some disorders eg; the basal ganglia and OCD.
Evaluation;
(Strength) Highly controlled and rigorous methods of study in order to enable researchers to infer cognitive processes at work. This has involved the use of lab experiments to produce reliable, objective data.
(Strength) Has had a big influence on the development of successful therapies such as CBT.
(Weakness) Machine reductionism = the cognitive approach suggests that human behaviour can be described by the relatively simple components of machines eg; does not take into account individual difference.
(Weakness) Research is often carried out in artificial settings and role of emotion is undervalued.
Biological approach;
Views humans as biological organisms and so provides biological explanations of all aspects of psychological functioning.
Behaviour is therefore explained by inherited genetics, biological structures within the human body and chemical changes within the human body (neurochemistry).
The role of genetics;
Heredity is the passing of characteristics from one generation to the next through genes, it is the reason why offspring 'take after' their parents in terms of psychological characteristics.
Genes carry the instructions for a particular characteristic (intelligence etc).
The extent to which a psychological characteristic is determined by genes or the environment is called the nature-nurture debate.
The more a trait is influenced by genetic factors the greater the heritability.
For example, studies of identical twins have suggested that the variation in individual intelligence could be 60-80% due to genes.
Genotypes - The genetic code that is written in the DNA of an individual's cell.
Phenotype - The physical appearance that results from the inherited information. This can be affected by our environment.
The influence of biological structures;
The nervous system
The central nervous system, the brain and spinal chord.
The peripheral nervous system, the somatic and autonomic nervous system.
Neurons
The nervous system passes messages from one part of the body to another using nerve cells called neurons.
Neurons transmit nerve impulses in the form of electrical signals.
Breathing, eating and sexual behaviour are all examples of behaviour controlled by neural impulses.
The Brain
The largest part of the brain is the cerebrum making up around 85% of its total mass.
The outer surface of the cerebrum is called the cerebral cortex which is responsible for many of the higher order functions such as thought and language.
The cerebrum is divided into two halves known as hemispheres.
Each hemisphere is divided into 4 lobes.
Evaluation;
(Strength) Has led to clear cause and effect (drug treatment for depression).
(Strength/Weakness) Lab study, objective findings yet demand characteristics and social desirability bias can affect the reliability of the findings.
(Weakness) Eugenics, people believe that they may be able to control peoples genes causing them to become what they want them to be.
(Weakness) Reductionist, simplifies humans and their experiences.
Psychodynamic approach;
Psyche - the human soul, mind or spirit.
Dynamic - a system that is constantly progressing, changing or active.
Sigmund Freud - Is also known as the father of psychology.
His basic ideas;
How we grow up is important.
We can explain our personalities based on how we develop.
Three key parts of the mind; Id, Ego and Superego.
Id;
We are born with this.
It allows us to get our basic needs.
The pleasure principle.
Doesn't care about reality.
Ego;
The next part to develop.
The reality principle.
Job of the ego is to meet the needs of the Id.
Superego;
The moral part of us, the bit that knows what is right and wrong.
Comes from the rules parents have for us, develops by around the age of 5.
Internalised.
Aims for perfection, is our inner critic.
Conscious and unconscious;
Freud believed that we are not aware of the majority of what goes on in our minds.
Our underlying emotions, beliefs, feelings and impulses happen in the unconscious.
Our conscious part is a very small part of what we are.
Conscious = the part we are aware of.
Pre-conscious = the part we can access if prompted but we are not immediately aware of.
Unconscious = the part we are not aware of (the largest part).
Defence mechanisms;
Denial; Arguing against a problem by stating it doesn't exist. Eg; Denying that your doctor's diagnosis is correct and seeking a second opinion.
Displacement; Taking out impulses on a less threatening target. Eg; Slamming a door instead of hitting a person.
Repression; Pulling into the unconscious. Eg; Forgetting a childhood memory due to the trauma and anxiety.
Psychosexual stages of development;
Key ideas;
Different stages of development crucial for different aspects of personality.
Based on different erogenous zones (where a child is stimulated).
Fixation ("stuckness") and regression.
Little Hans (1909);
A case study used to explain the psychosexual stages of development.
He suffered a traumatic experience which caused him to become fearful of horses, yet Freud thought that this was due to a fear of castration by his mother and a fear of his father.
He suffered from weird dreams that Freud used to further explain his theory of the Oedipus complex.
Evaluation;
1 - Explanatory power;
Freuds theories are controversial.
However they had a big impact of psychology at the time.
It has been used to explain personality development, criminal behaviour and gender identity.
It draws links between childhood experiences and later development.
2 - Case study method;
Freuds ideas were based on the intensive study of single individuals that were often in therapy.
His notes are detailed and carefully recorded so critics argue that is impossible to make universal claims based on such a small sample of individuals.
Interpretations were highly subjective and it is unlikely that other researchers would have made other conclusions.
Can be argued to be less scientific due to the subjectivity.
3 - Psychic determinism;
Freud believed that there was no such thing as an accident.
Even such a thing as a 'slip of the tongue' which are driven by unconscious forces and has deep symbolic meaning.
Any free will is an illusion, which has a negative impact on mental health.
