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Power and Politics, References - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Stages of Power
        
        1) Drawing inner strength from others
        
        2) Strengthening oneself
        
        3) Self-assertiveness
        
        4) Acting as an instrument of higher authority
- - - - Power is something that is owned by individuals (or groups) - as a result of either personal traits or formal structures.
    - - Jeffrey Pfeffer (1992)
        
        Individuals acquire power by having something that someone
        else wants/needs.
      - 2) Max Weber
        
        Types of authority
        
        2) Tradational
        
        3) Rational-legal
        
        1) Charismatic
  - - - Power is not something a person/group possesses – instead, it is a creative & positive force
    - - Foucault (1977)
        
        Three perspectives on power
        
        2) Power relations
        
        3) Disciplinary power/normalisation
        
        1) Power/knowledge
- - - - 3) Manipulation of others
      - 4) Influencing of the decisions and resources
      - 2) Decision observation and interpretation
      - 5) Personal reputation building
      - 1) Relationships building
- - - - Provide a set of positive outcomes of politics, namely “career advancement, recognition and status, enhanced power and position, attainment of personal and organisational goals, successful accomplishment of a job or policy implementation, and feelings of achievement, ego, control and success”
    - - Institutional theory
        
        They illustrate with help of theory that learning throughout an organisation is a function of open political processes at group level that involves various individuals. They also state that organisational politics might enhance the flexibility and innovativeness of organisational forms
    - - Despite this negative perception of organizational politics, there is evidence that organizational politics are not necessarily evil but that political skill, if used effectively, can aid in gaining compromises in difficult workplace situations
  - - - He argue that genetic tendencies such as forcefulness, power and control need, manipulation, rank rivalry, and egotism can all materialize in response to common organisational circumstances of uncertainty, resource shortage, and disagreement.
    - - They state that political climate can have negative consequences even for those who are not directly affected by the primary political activity.
    - - Organizational politics has a long history with Aristole commenting that the reason politics is present is due to diversity of interests, which need to be resolved. When rational thought does not work, many executives use political tactics to gain compliance.
- - - - 3) Relationship of control and influence
        
        Martin and Sims (1974)
        
        In discussing power tactics used by executives, Martin and Sims, state that politics is concerned with relationships of control or influence. Although control, power, and influence are key issues in the study of OP, this approach allows inclusion of behaviours and forms of influence not normally considered political.
      - 4) Self-serving behavior
        
        Burns (1961) and Robbins (1976)
        
        They have considered politics as behaviour directed toward personal gain. Although this approach is intuitively appealing, the argument can be made that all willful behaviour ultimately serves some self-interest.
      - 2) Conflict over policy preferences
        
        Wildavsky (1968)
        
        Defines politics as conflict over whose preferences are to prevail in the determination of policy.
        
        Wamsley and Zaid (1973)
        
        Another view of politics in the determination of policy is proposed by Wamsley and Zaid. Their work relating to public organizations defines politics as the structure and process of the uses of authority and power to define goals, directions, and major parameters of the organizational economy.
      - 1) Claims against resource sharing system
        
        Harvey and Mills
        
        Political behavior in an organization has been viewed as actions that make a claim against the organization's resource sharing system. Their basic premise was that any adaptive change will produce conflict through its effect on the distribution of scarce resources among organizational units.
    - - Ferris et al, (1989); Ferris and Kacmar,(1992); Ferris et al., (2002)
        
        Variable identifies in general theoretical model presented in early POP research efforts.
        
        2) Work environment influences
        
        Some early research efforts show that job-related factors such as autonomy, feedback, interaction with supervisor/coworkers, and opportunity for advancement are more strongly related to perceptions of organizational politics than either organizational or personal influences (e.g., Ferris and Kacmar, 1992).
        
        3) Personal influence
        
        Most of the research examining personal influences upon political perceptions has focused upon demographic variables (Adams et al, 2008). Early theoretical models propose that women, older individuals, minorities, and those with longer tenure tend to experience the negative impacts of political behavior and, therefore, are more likely to perceive the environment as more political (Ferris et al., 1989; Parker et al, 1995).
        
        1) Organizational Influence
        
        Theoretical models (e.g., Ferris et al., 1989; Ferris and Kacmar, 1992; Parker et al., 1995), there are a variety of organizational influences upon perceptions of organizational politics including centralization, formalization, hierarchical level, and span of control.
  - - - Georgina Guthrie (2019)
        
        As a Curse
        
        Even though politics is not necessarily bad, it can waste valuable time in organizations and distract employees from focusing on their job performance. Managers can waste a lot of time managing politics. It can be particularly damaging when employees engage in self-serving behavior that is not accepted by the organization.
        
        As a blessing
        
        Politics arise when people ally themselves with others to gain the most resources. In order to obtain these resources, they will engage in bargaining, negotiating, and alliance building. All these behaviors are part of organizational politics and can help people be successful.
    - - Mitra (2020)
        
        Leadership is concerned with policymaking, directing, supervising and controlling other factors, components or members of the organization or the team, among other important functions. Power is inherent to leadership as it gives rise to, and maintains, hierarchy among the members of the group or organization
      - Arora et al (2018)
        
        The role of leadership helps to use his skill, knowledge, capabilities and some kind of politics to make decisions and also uses his power to ensure that his decisions are accepted. Thus, the impact of a leader using his power and politics in an organization is important to get a competitive advantage. Indeed, the survival is a political act in an organization.
    - - Guido Maes and Greet Van Hootegen (2022
        
        Episodic power and politics
        
        Episodic power and politics assume episodes in which an actor performs power to make a certain decision turn out in their favor.
        
        Systemic power and politics
        
        Systemic power and politics, on the other hand, is embedded in the social systems of the organization.