preterm births and the neonatal and infant mortality rates higher in boys

female sex hormone oestrogen protective of cardiovascular diseases (CVD) / partly responsible for the lower incidence of CVD in women until menopause vs. androgen hormone (higher in men) associated with a higher risk of CVD

Female bodies are known to produce stronger immune responses and larger amounts of antibodies compared with male bodies - better at fighting off infections & diseases

male foetus is biologically weaker and more vulnerable to maternal stress and pregnancy complications than the female foetus

Chronic health conditions that shorten life

Heart rate recovery (how long it takes your heart to return to resting after exercise) - the quicker the better

"Participants with high CVH had an average 8.9 more years of life expectancy at age 50 years compared with those with low CVH. On average, 42.6% of the gained life expectancy at age 50 years from adhering to high CVH was attributable to reduced cardiovascular disease death. ” (Hao Ma et. al., 10 April 2023)

Affects CVH (see section) E.g. eating an excess of fat, salt or sugar can increase risk of heart disease

Everything in moderation (E.g. sugars are an important part of nutrition however too much can cause diabetes)

Fresh foods are better than processed ones as they often contain healthier ingredients

Different diets for different cultures (see Culture / Ethnicity section)

“There are some 1.1 billion people who smoke on our planet earth. Just less than one-third of all adults in the world smoke regularly. Tobacco deaths will not only occur in old age but will start when smokers are about age 35. Half of those who die from smoking-related causes will die in middle age, each losing about 25 years of life expectancy. More than 95% of the tobacco consumed is in the form of cigarettes. About half of all smokers who undergo lung cancer take up smoking again.” (Dying to Quit," a 1998 book by Janet Brigham)

Those drinking 14 to 25 drinks per week could expect a shorter life expectancy by one to two years

Those drinking more than 25 drinks per week could expect a shorter life expectancy by four to five years

“Light drinkers (those consuming one to three drinks per week) had the lowest rates of cancer or death compared to those drinking less than 1 drink per week” (Kunzmann, Andrew T. et. al., 2018)

High blood pressure, heart disease, stroke, liver disease, and digestive problems. Cancer of the breast, mouth, throat, esophagus, voice box, liver, colon, and rectum (long term)

“more likely than non-overweight children to develop diabetes and cardiovascular diseases at a younger age, which in turn are associated with a higher chance of premature death and disability”

moderate obesity, which is now common, reduces life expectancy by about 3 years, and that severe obesity, which is still uncommon, can shorten a person’s life by 10 years

Improve overall health -> improve longevity (see Wellbeing / health section)

In recent years, diets in Japan have become more similar to those in the U.S. but they still eat smaller portions, more fermented foods, less sweets, and less red meat

Culture encourage better lifestyle habits / culture that reveres elders so they have better mental health, less loneliness, and better healthcare

Less obesity “prevalence of obesity among U.S. women is about 37% but among Japanese women is less than 5%