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12 - The concept of grammar, 1950s - challenges to structuralism. 1959 N…

- - - - Topic looks at: definition of grammar, prescriptive vs descriptive, historical overview, role of teaching
- - - - APPLIED linguistics = puts concepts to use for pedagogical purposes,
      - THEORETICAL linguistics = establishes a theory of the underlying structures of lang
    - - GREEK linguistics of 5C were 1st to be concerned with linguistic theory. 1st BC= THRAX wrote 1st complete grammar. For Greeks, G=a tool that could be used in the study of literature
        
        ROMANS - adapted G system of Greeks & applied it to Romans
        
        MEDIEVAL EUROPE - edu was in Latin. Latin G became the foundation for the arts curriculum. AELFRIC - wrote 1st Latin grammar in Ang-Saxon in 11C.He proposed that this work should also serve as an intro to Eng grammar - thf tradition of devising Eng G according to Latin model arose.
        
        RENAISSANCE - ↑ interest in grammar of world's langs. By 1700 - 61 langs had printed grammars (usually accounted for literary lang, not actual spoken lang)
- - - - Lang study = mental discipline. Goal: read lit in original form. Classical langs, then imposed on F1 teaching
        
        APPROACH: analyse & study gram rules (matching the trad order of Latin), then practice manipulating G structures by translation. Focus = reading & writing. Pron/speaking - neglected. Deductive grammar (students given rules, memorise, apply to other exercises)
    - - Mid-late 19C - opposition to GT method (as couldn't communicate). R Movt - gave imp. to oral communication. Oral based methodology - learners taught through speech (written lang appeared later=
        
        Inductive grammar. Students given examples & had to figure out rules. Gave rise to Direct Method (Berlitz)
    - - Suddenly needed many more speaker due to WW2. Skinner - B.P book. HABITS. AL method is another oral approach BUT it drills the students in use of grammatical sentence patterns
    - - 1959 Chomsky Syntactic Structures (attached Skinners 'verbal behaviour'. Argued ppl made creative use (eg children say things they have never heard). Emphasis on cognition - led to the Cognitive Approach
        
        Cognitive approach - learners responsible for learnings (they form their own hypotheses to discover rules etc) errors are inevitable. 1970s - lots of interest but no method developed directly from cog. approach
    - - DM 2.0. Emphasises role of natural lang acq. T speaks only target lang. Lots of input. Students have an initial silent period before producing speech. T's use lang that's just in advance of S's current level. Need to ↓ anxiety & ↑ confidence
    - - Thinking that communication also needs communicative competence. Activities that involve communication promote learning. CLT/task based/projects etc.
        
        Grammar imp to be accurate but Communication more input. In task based; focus is using lang to complete a task, NOT on the lang itself. Big change in approach
  - - - 1) Present (eg a text where the G structure appears) 2) Isolation & Explanation - focus on G structures 3) Practice exercises designed to get learners to absorb the structure
        
        In the practice part - can range from activities when there aim is accuracy (info gap activities, fill in sentences etc) to more complex activities like discussions, debates, constructions a story etc.
      - Jeremy Harmer in The Practice of ELT
        
        1) Lead in (new lang demonstrated in context)
        
        2) Elicitation (to see if students can produce it)
        
        3) Explication (OMIT if step 2 is successful). Can explain on board, with drill etc
        
        4) Accurate reproduction (students repeat & practice a certain no. of models. Cue-drills, chain-drills etc)
        
        5) Immediate creativity - learners make sentences of their own
  - - - SO - what should students learn?
        
        MIX of grammar, vocab, discourse organisation & range of lang skills & sub skills.
        
        G essential - eg need to know that verbs in 34rd person sing. have 's' ending etc. G can thf TEMPORARILY become main learning objective
        
        BUT - G just ONE of the means to acquiring a mastery of lang as a whole, NOT an end in itself.
      - Teaching Syllabi
        
        Evolution from G syllabus → funcional syllabus (1970s) → Topic based (90s)
        
        BUT funcional syllabi ALONE are not a satisfactory organising principle. HOW to order them? HOW to apply G to teacher?
        
        Some consensus that G still the best organising principal for a syllabus BUT can be connected with functions (eg at end of section on 'would' could have 'would you like to...?'
        
        Topic based is another way, more centred on vocab
        
        Some also talk about 'waves'
        
        1) Linguistic wave' (G) - too much G, not learner focussed, doesn't prep students to use lang
        
        2) Communication Wave (like functional) Students do practice but it's not real.
        
        3) The Third wave. Organised around genres, text & content &/or projects. More authentic.
        
        In general: syllabi are designed with elements of ALL these waves. Future directions revolve around the 3rd wave & impact of technology
        
        There's been a gradual change from seeing lang as an end to in itself to a MEANS with which to do research, explore content & solve problems
        
        Challenges
        
        Teachers need to be SUPPORTED:
        
        MISALIGNMENT between curriculum design & EBAU
        
        Criticisms of textbooks
        
        generally they are most closely aligned with G based syllabi.
        
        Tend to focus on RP, Am - don't prep students for interaction with ppl from other cultures
        
        'Conversation' practice outdated - how often do students need to book train tickets nowadays?
        
        Most don't teach informal Eng that is generally more used
- - - - Routledge Handbook of ELT, Graham Hall, 2016. Practice of ELT, Jeremy Hardman, 5th ed, 2015. British Council