NATIONALISM

ORIGINS OF NATIONALISM

  • roots in the French Revolution 1789-99.
  • before this there were empires, kingdoms and realms where identity was seen as allegiance to a particular ruler or monarch.
  • people were 'subjects' of the realm who owed obedience ot their ruler.
  • nationalism ushered the notion of citizenship.
  • the french revolution was carred out in the name of the frach nation and for the french citizens.
  • nationalism played key role in redrawing european map to form nation states such as italy and germany as it spread across europe.
  • throughout 19th century, nationalism became increasingly popular and was adopted by conservative and reactionary politicians.
  • in 20th century, it spread across the globe with the rise of aggressive nationalism - fascism - and as a reaction to the imperialist practices of european nations.

CORE CONCEPTS

the nation:

  • nation = 'a named human community residing in a perceived homeland and having common myths, shared history, distinct public culture, and common laws and customs for all members' - according to anthony d. smith in. his book.
  • debate over what constitutes a nation and the history of nations.
  • for some, nations are product of 19th century - they were invented by nationalism to create the necessary social cohesion for the effective working of the state.
  • benedict anderson argued in 1983 that nations are 'imagined communities'.
  • smith argued modern nations are linked to ethnies which long predate the state.

the nation state:
a geographical area where the cultural boundaries of the nation match up with the political boundaries and the people have the ability to govern themselves.
issue with this is that is is an ideal.

  • most modern nation states contain elements of different nations and cultures - e.g. Belgium has members claim cultural identity (Flemish, Walloon) and national identity.
  • some nations do not have a state - e.g. Kurds are largest nation without a state spread across Iraq, Syria, Turkey and Iran.
  • some states do not have a nation with a sense of common ties - e.g. Iraq.

TYPES OF NATIONALISM

  • most diverse of political ideas.
  • agreement within nationalism that nations had the right of autonomy to govern themselves.
  • a need for national unity and identity although there is disagreement over where this comes from and how it can be strengthened.
  • one of key divisions is state nationalism against minority nationalism.

state nationalism:

  • where state must be based on a homogeneous national culture to realise its powers.
  • nationalism is process of creating, reinforcing or developing shared culture to allow state to function effectively.
  • can be seen through flag, national anthem, oaths of allegiance, national assemblies, processions, national sporting achievements and failures, national fetes or events.

minority nationalism:

  • appears in opposition to state nationalism.
  • minority groups within states feel their identity and culture is under threat from state nationalism and their culture warrants its own state to protect it.
  • SNP seeks to create an independent scottish nation state - cons, libdems and labour emphasise unity of the uk.
  • catalonian independence movement in spain to protect their identity and language - spanish govt emphasises spanish unity.

liberal nationalism:

  • earliest type.
  • dates back to french revolution.
  • aims to liberate people from imperialism and end oppression within a society.
  • three central pillars: self-determination, liberal internationalism and civic nationalism.

SELF DETERMINATION:

  • liberal nationalism: founded on liberal principle that morally equal, rational individuals should be sovereign over their own mind and body and have certain guaranteed, natural rights.
  • nations: seen as individuals on the international stage. morally equal entities. should be sovereign and autonomous with certain basic rights, most important is self-determination.
  • self-determination: based on idea of nation and popular sovereignty to create basis of idea of political nationalism. goal of nationalism is formation of nation state. can be achieved through unification of achievement of independence to free the nation from domination and oppression by a foreign power or absolute monarchy. ultimate goal of liberal nationalism is the creation of a world of independent, equal, nation states.
  • rational: govt must be based on democracy of govt by consent as nation state practices self-govt. act of consent is expression of individuals rationality, so nation state is rational.

LIBERAL INTERNATIONALISM:
a world of independent nation state will create a world order of balance and harmony.

  • idea built on principle that democratic nation states would respect sovereignty of other states.
  • can be achieved through growing interdependence between states via free trade, which promotes mutual understanding and cooperation and ensures that the costs of war make conflict unlikely.
  • building of international organisations, like UN, can create spaces for nation states to resolve issues through rational debate and discussion.
  • democratic nation states will not declare war on each other as going to war requires the consent of the people and it is they who will have to fight and bear the costs.
  • cosmopolitan ideals will be developed, where individuals feel a moral and ethical connection to all others irrespective of their nationhood, believing they are entitled to basic rights and freedoms.

CIVIC NATIONALISM:
nationalism is developed out of shared political values and allegiances:

  • this type of nationalism is open and voluntary: if you choose to sign up to values of nation state you are welcomed and this is not restricted by any identity criteria.
  • this type is inclusive as members see themselves as part of a community of citizens unified by a commitment to democratic ideals.
  • it is the basis of a peaceful, dynamic and diverse society that will drive social and economic progress.
    the state can play a key role in building the shared national culture to realise its political values such as democracy or economic welfare.

case study: the usa

  • have the motto 'out of many, one'.
  • civic nationalism is essential to creating healthy us society.
  • it is inclusive as new arrivals can learn language, take oath and understand culture without having to abandon own traditions.
  • creates a melting pot.
  • irish american, italian american, african american - all possible identities.
  • opposes extreme individualism associated with ayn rand by giving people a sense of collective unity and identity.
  • civic nationalism creates sense of 'us' and 'we' where people identify with all americans.

conservative nationalism

UNITY AND ORDER:

  • liberal nationalism: cons initially suspicious of the arrival of nationalism as it appeared to pit the nation against traditional forms of authority such as church and monarchy.
  • nation state: once the nation and state had been brought together in nation state, cons saw that nationalism could be a force for protecting the state against radicals and socialists who were promoting revolution, especially in older states like the UK and France.
  • organic: nation is organic and emerges from con view of imperfection of human nature. nationalism encourages a deep connection to the nation because nations naturally emerge from people in their desire for security, drawing together with others who share their attitudes, values, practices and appearance.
  • order: nationalism could be used to protect and enhance the existing social order and traditional institutions, creating the security and stability that people need.
  • one nation: unity and identity of the nation is of overriding importance. symbols, values, myths, memories and traditions should be used to nurture a romantic connection to the nation and combat divisions like age, gender, class or wealth.
  • romantic nationalism: stresses the importance of a shared culture, language and history over rationalism as the basis of the nation. based on writings of Fichte and von Herder.

RIGHTS OF THE NATION:
instead of the rights of self-determination of all nations, con nationalism is about the rights of one particular nation. see in 2 ways:

  • desire to preserve indentity and unity of nation by preserving status quo against change or returning society to the 'golden age' of the nation, based on a romanticised view of the past.
  • can appear in idea that the particular nation state should promote its own economic and political interests at the expense of other nations.

EXCLUSIVITY:
exclusive nationalism emphasises the importance of a shared culture, language and history, meaning opposition to large-scale immigration which is seen as a threat to national identity:

  • strong and stable societies are based on shared values and a common culture. there is opposition to multiculturalism.
  • newcomers have to accept the common culture to become part of the nation.
  • immigration, especially from societies where there are practices, values or religions that are seen to be in conflict with the majority culture should be restricted.

OPPOSITION TO SUPRANATIONALISM:

  • national institutions and laws and currency should not be weakened by supranational bodies.
  • opposition to the eu and the euro have been strong among eurosceptics in the con party and was crucial to rise of ukip.
  • the idea that the eu can move to an ever-closer union is seen as absurd due to the cultural, linguistic and national diversity of europe.

anti colonial and post-colonial nationalism

  • colonialism: imperialism of the european powers created a desire for national liberation and a sense of nationhood among the peoples of africa and asia.
  • anti-character: the colonised peoples, based in artificial territories, defined by colonial boundary markers, were given unity and identity through their opposition to and struggle with the colonial powers.
  • self-determination: the european colonial powers brought with them the ideas of liberal nationalism. as many of the leaders of national liberation movements from africa and asia were educated in the west, they applied the liberal idea of self-determination to their struggles.
  • under-development: the national liberation movements opposed the economic oppression of colonialism, which had exploited them and their natural resources for the benefit of the colonial powers. this gave the movement an economic perspective.
  • socialism: as a result, national liberation movements blended the need for self-determination with the ideas of socialism.
  • nation-building: in post-colonialism, the aim of nationalism and the state was to build a national identity, a unity - in effect build a nation. in this sense, nationalism preceded the nation.

a new form of nationalism: the struggle against colonialism led to a wide array of ideas that blended nationalism with non-western ideas:

  • Tanzanian president advocated collectivised agriculture, nationalised banks and industries and the self-reliance of the individual and the nation.
  • Ghanian revolutionary and then president developed the idea of the 'African personality".

black nationalism:
a complex set of ideas based around the desire for the cultural, political and economic separation of african-americans from white american society that developed in the early 20th century in the US.

  • marcus garvey was central to its devvelopment and it has two main elements:
  • black pride: a feeling of pride and unity in black identity, culture and achievements, based on the sense that there is a common ancestry for all black africans.
  • separation: for some, this meant separate political, social and economic institutions for african-americans; for others it meant a separate nation for african americans with its own independent state in america or the return of all africans to a free africa.

pan-africanism:
a movement, informed by the ideas of black nationalism, that wishes to unite all black africans behind a consciousness of their unique political identity and common political destiny.
there are 3 key elements:

  • diaspora: all peoples across the world are descended from africans having a common ancestry, culture and identity. much of this diaspora (scattered population) was created by the forcible removing of africans from africa in the slave trade.
  • colonialism: africans were divided within africa by the imperial powers to make it easier for them to dominate the continent. this colonial domination was backed up by an ideological domination that saw africans and african culture as backward.
  • freedom: freedom for africa can only be achieved by the total liberation of the whole african continent, with all africans needing to work together if they wish to escape colonialism and neo-colonialism.

expansionist nationalism

darwinian and chauvinistic nationalism:

  • expansionist nationalists based their ideas of the assumption that international politics was a struggle similar to charles darwins idea of the survival of the fittest.
  • the political, economic or military success of a nation state was down to the superior qualities of that nation.
  • underpinning this is the view that some nations are superior to others - chauvinistic nationalism.

imperialism and colonialism:

  • during the 19th century expansionist nationalism expressed itself as imperialism and colonialism with the aim of establishing home colonies to be exploited to serve the national interest at home.
  • the struggle for empire against other nations created a sense of national unity and pride, and successful conquest proved the superiority of that particular nation, often described as jingoism.
  • imperialism ignores the principle of self-determination, with europeans in the 19th century seeing the peoples of africa and asia as unable to govern themselves.
  • imperialism was seen as part of an idealistic, moral campaign to deliver civilisation to the world by introducing good govt, culture and religion to the less well-off nations. this form of nationalism is based on militarism

pan-nationalism:
emergence of chauvinist nationalism that sought to unite people of one culture or language or a related language under one state.

  • e.g. pan-slavism emerged in the late 29th century and early 20th century - it had tow themes:
  • russians and the other slavic peoples of eastern and south eastern europe are as one, with the russias as the natural leaders and defenders.
  • slavic peoples are superior to western european nations and so pan-slavism is both anti-liberal and anti-western.

integral nationalism:

  • chauvinist nationalism became more militant with the idea of integral nationalism, closely associated with the thinking of charles maurras.
  • integral nationalism places the nation at the centre of the life of all its citizens.
  • it is anti-democratic, anti-individualistic and irrational as all other loyalties or identities are absorbed into loyalty to the nation state. this is a form of ethnic nationalism.
  • this promotes individual sacrifice for the beenfit of the nation.
  • it tends to be highly militaristic and has a strong appeal to nations that feel isolated, pwoerless and under threat or those nations that have recently achieved statehood through conflict.

fascism and aggressive nationalism:

  • most extreme and radical form of expansionist nationalism.
  • nazism in germany crystalised around ideas of the aryan race and one people, one nation, one leader.
  • the political state is placed above the nation with the nation serving the state. this was expressed by mussolini.

racialism:

  • believes in fixed, scientific categories for distinguishing between races despite the scientific evidence, inaccurately equating nation with race.
  • this splits the world into 'us' vs 'them' on the basis of race, seeing some races as superior and pitted into competition against each other in a war of survival.
  • racialism is exclusive as cannot 'opt in' to a race.
  • the purity of that race must be defended at all costs against corruption by races regarded to be lesser.
  • found in nazi germany.

recent challenges

GLOBALISATION:
the world has become increasingly interconnected, especially in terms of the economy, and this limits the ability of the state to control economic activity within its borders. this is seen as weakening national autonomy.

COSMOPOLITANISM:
the world can increasingly be seen as one society, where people have human rights and obligations to others that extend beyond any national, cultural, religious or ethnic differences. this offers a threat to ideas of national unity and identity by creating a global identity.

SUPRANATIONALISM:
a threat to nationalism is the growth of these bodies that are higher than nation states and can impose laws and decisions on them. the eu is a clear example of this. this removes national autonomy.

IMMIGRATION:
this increases levels of diversity within societies of different groups with different identities and culture. this is seen as a threat to national identity and unity.

liberal nationalism does support the liberal internationalism of globalisation and accepts the importance of international law and human rights. it proposes multiculturalism as a way of creating unity from diversity and sees supranationalism as enhancing the power of the state through pooled sovereignty.

these challenges have led to a revival of pan-africanism to oppose the neo colonialism seen at the heart of globalisation and free trade.

there has recently been a rise of more regressive, right wing form of nationalism which is identified by its opposition to these changes in the world seeing them as a real threat to either cultural or ethnic identities:

  • UKIP and the hardline eurosceptics of the con party.
  • impact of trumps MAGA campaign.
  • nationalist parties have risen across europe incl the Freedom Party in Austria and the Law and Justice party in poland.

CORE IDEAS: HUMAN NATURE

  • nationality is a form of consciousness whereby the individual identifies themselves with a nation based on a common identity that is distinct from other nations.
  • nations are cultural entities but there is no clear set of objectives to define a nation rather a nation is defined by a degree of consciousness among thee people.
    possible factors incl:
  • language
  • religion
  • ethnicity
  • cultural nationalism can be expressed as minority nationalism in the case of Scots of Catalans, where it is progressive and liberal. can also be seen in black nationalism and pan-africanism where it is progressive and anti-colonial.
  • cultural nationalism can also be exclusive and reactionary in the case of maurras.
  • also idea of political rather than cultural nation - community is defined by own shared values and ideals rather than culture or history as advocated by civic nationalism.

CORE IDEAS: THE STATE

  • idea of self-determination arose from rousseau and shaped new map of europe during 19th century - was seen as rational and progressive in its opposition to absolute monarchies and imperial domination.
  • nation state brings together concept of nation and state so nation is harmonised with state although it is more of an ideal than reality.
  • nationalism can be found among minority groups who wish to est a state or some form of devolution to provide autonomy to protect their cultural identity.
  • for liberal nationalists, role of state is to build and maintain shared values and ideal necessary for state to realise its goals.
  • con nationalists the state is about preserving order and the organic nation or changing policies to take the state back to its golden times of the past.

CORE IDEAS: SOCIETY

  • in civic nationalism, cultural identity is not as important as shared culture.
  • this is one way of building nationalism where there are diff cultures within the territory or where there is large scale immigration.

CORE IDEAS: THE ECONOMY

  • liberal internationalists see free trade between nations as developing interdependence and improving the chance of global peace by increasing material costs to societies of war.
  • civic nationalism allows state to achieve its political goals, which incl economic policies such as welfare provision and taxation.
  • these types of policy rely on the sense that individuals see themselves as part of the wider community.
  • con nationalism argues the state should adopt economic policies in defence of national interest - these policies can be free trade (seen under thatcher) or protectionist (trump).
  • anti/post colonialism developed a strain of though based on socialist internationalism where capitalism and globalisation turned the nations of the south into the worlds working class exploited to pay for the luxuries of the western world.

TENSIONS WITHIN NATIONALISM

rational v. romantic:

  • most rational way of dividing up world is into natural political communities that are self-governing: nation states and nations are modern constructions.
  • however, nation states are where the nation serves the interests of the state, not the other way around.
  • romantic nationalism sees the nation as a historical entity with roots in pre-modern times that is held together by a common culture and language that are distinct.
  • the job of the state is to serve the nation, protecting its culture and ensuring its future.

progressive v. regressive:

  • progressive nationalism based on idea that it can help nation achieve political, social and economic progress.
  • can be achieved by freeing the nation from domination so it can rule tiself.
  • regressive nationalism intends to return society to previous golden age based on romantic view of traditional culture, institutions and values.
  • con nationalists would perceive return to previous society as progress - hence eurosceptic views surrounding brexit.

inclusive v. exclusive:

  • inclusive nationalism does not see culture, race or religion as a reason to exclude people form the state.
  • as long as individuals sign up to the values of society and its language they are welcomed into state allowing for a diverse society.
  • in uk this involves passing a citizenship test or in usa taking naturalisation test in english on us history and govt.
  • exclusive forms of nationalism see culture as defining the nation and newcomers must adopt dominant culture.
  • integral nationalists believe that newcomers cannot become part of an ethnic group as they lack shared culture.
  • racialist variants equate nationality with race, which is exclusive by birth.

expansionist v. self-determination:

  • historically, expansionism expressed itself through imperialism and colonialism.
    movements like pan-slavism or fascist expansionist policies.
  • in modern world, sense that states like usa are involved in neocolonialism where their power over other states is economic, political and cultural so does not requuire conquest.
  • self-determination remains a powerful ideal, enshrined in the un charter and at the heart of independence movements across the globe.
  • kurds, catalans and scots.

liberal v. conservative:

  • liberal nationalism is concerned with freedom of all nations and freedom of individuals within those nations.
  • involves nations freeing themselves from state nationalism or oppression by foreign states.
  • however, this desire to be free can lead to violence and conflict as seen in sri lankan civil war.
  • con nationalism tends to develop in well-established states, like france/uk, and focuses more on maintaining an organic society than on the freedom of the individuals within the nation.
  • generally seen as wanting to keep society as it is or returning to a golden era, so it is viewed as regressive whereas liberal nationalism is seen as progressive.