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Grade 12 Chemistry (Last Concept map ;), chemical bonding - Coggle Diagram

- - - - add -bi, -tri to -amine to indicate multiple of same type of alkyl
      - add suffix -amine
      - each alkyl group in alphabetical order
      - ammonia molecules
    - - hydrogen is replaced by an alkyl chain
      - 3 possible covalent bonds
        
        1 alkyl chain
        
        primary amine
        
        2 alkyl chain
        
        secondary amine
        
        3 alkyl chain
        
        tertiary amine
  - - - reaction between
        
        alchool
        
        carboxylic acid
    - - OH is replaced with O and alkyl
        
        OCO
    - - first
        
        alchool
        
        ol --> yl
      - second
        
        carboxylic acid
        
        anoic acid --> oate
  - - - C=O
    - - OH
  - - - -one
      - carbonyl group in the middle of the chain
      - not at the end
    - - carbonyl group at the end of carbon chain
      - suffix -al
  - - - naming ethers
        
        use -oxy to the end of name
        
        shorter chains name
        
        shorter chain first
      - can't participate in hydrogen bonding
      - hydrogen replaced by alkyl group
    - - OH group
        
        hydroxyl
      - naming alcohols
        
        -ol
        
        number of carbons closest to functional group
        
        OH
  - - - not main chain
    - - lowest number at the bonds
      - then the alkyl chain
  - - - carbon bonded to a more electronegative atom
        
        C=O
        
        C-OH
        
        C-Cl
        
        impact properties of molecules
      - double/triple bond
        
        carbon chains are unsaturated
        
        kinks in chains
    - - how atoms add to the double bond
      - "hydrogen halide or water molecule reacts with an alkene, the hydrogen atom will generally bond to the carbon atom in the multiple bond that has the most hydrogen atoms already bonded to it"
  - - - count the carbons
      - count closest to the bond
    - - first part
        
        how many carbons in the longest chain
      - second part
        
        double bond
        
        -ene
        
        triple bond
        
        -yne
        
        unsaturated
    - - different atom arrangement
      - same backbone
    - - cis
        
        same side of double bond
      - trans
        
        opposite side of double bond
  - - - count number of carbon atoms in longest chain
        
        this will be prefix
      - add -ane to the end
    - - how many carbons in longest chain
    - - if there is any bonds in molecule
    - - molecular formula can be the same as another compund
      - structure is always different
    - - hydrogen atom switch with halogen
  - - - referred as structural formula
    - - CH3CH2CH3
    - - each end of a line is a carbon atom
      - no symbols
      - each line represents a bond
      - each carbon has hydrogen atoms bonded to it
  - - - only hydrogen and carbon atoms
      - aromatic
        
        unsaturated
        
        ring structure
        
        naming
        
        alkyl group
        
        -benzene
        
        benzene ring that lost a hydrocarbon
        
        phenyl group
        
        "phenyl" as substituent
        
        properties
        
        non-polar
        
        insoluble in water
    - - compounds based on carbon chains
    - - triple
      - from covalent bonds
      - single
      - double
- - - - formed by reaction of simple monomer
  - - - harsh
      - don't break down quickly
        
        engineering biodegradable synthetic materials
  - - - unsaturated carbon-carbon bonds
    - - break double bond
        
        continues to get next monomer
        
        chain continues
        
        continues for the number depicted by 'n'
  - - - under heat/pressure
    - - unreactive
      - stable single bonded
      - weak intermolecular forces
      - flexible when heated (usually)
        
        heat increases molecular motion
    - - condensation polymers, can be biodegradable
  - - - 2 monomers with 2 functional groups
    - - monomers with 2 functional groups
      - -OH group
      - -COOH group
      - must attach to end
        
        ester linkage
      - growing chain. monomer keep attaching
      - polyester + water
      - 2 hydroxyl groups and 2 carboxylic acid groups
      - dacron
        
        PET
        
        condensation copolymer
  - - - monosaccharide
        
        ketone or aldehyde
        
        with hydroxyl substituents
      - large polymer of monosaccharides
      - bond of glycogen
    - - 2+ amino acids linked
      - same as amide linkage
    - - amino acids
      - -COOH
      - -NH2
      - Hydrogen
      - R-aditional group
      - structure
        
        primary structure
        
        secondary structure
        
        hydrogen bonding between oxygen and carbonyl
        
        shape is important
    - - DNA
        
        polymer in cells nucleus
      - RNA
        
        polymer in cell cytoplasm
      - makes up DNA and RNA
      - nucleotides
        
        5-carbon sugar
        
        nitrogen-containing organic base
        
        phosphoric acid molecule
        
        DNA or RNA combines with phosphoric acid
- - - - electrodes
      - plum pudding model
      - randomly
    - - electron moves up or down energy level
  - - - alpha particle at gold foil
      - atomic spectra
        
        spectroscopy
        
        analysis of spectra to determine properties of source
        
        measure intensity of light
        
        no light=spectrum
    - - dense centre of atom with positive charge
    - - positive subatomic particle
    - - neutral subatomic particle
    - - same number of protons different neutrons
      - radioisotopes
        
        emits radioactive gamma rays
        
        alpha or beta particles
    - - advancing atomic theory
      - excited hydrogen atoms
        
        release energy by emitting light in wavelengths
      - emission spectrum
        
        electromagnetic radiation emitted by an atom
        
        when atom is returned to a lower energy state from a higher one
      - continuous spectrum
        
        contains all wavelengths in specific region
      - line spectrum
        
        contains only wavelengths characteristic of the element being studied
        
        unique to each element
    - - first 18 elements
      - 2, 8, 18 electrons
      - does not fully describes structure
      - electrons can't actually orbit nucleus
  - - - electromagnetic radiation
      - maxwell's theory
        
        continuous wavelengths that form spectrum
      - photoelectric
        
        electrons emitted by matter
        
        then absorbs energy
        
        Hertz
        
        frequency of light was important in determining energy of emitted electrons
      - photons
        
        unit of light energy
        
        fundamental particle
        
        electron can escape a surface
        
        electron absorbs photon
      - when excited electrons move lower energy level
        
        they emit a photon of light
    - - matter can gain or lose energy
      - E=nhf
      - 6.63x10^-34
        
        measured and is a constant
    - - burst/packet of energy
  - - - electron has wave lengths
      - electron bound to a nucleus
        
        resembles a standing wave
        
        nodes
        
        starting and ending of each cycle
        
        antinode
        
        amplitude of wave
        
        must be whole number
      - applied standing waves to hydrogen atom
        
        n=1,2,3,4...
    - - region around nucleus where electron= high probability
      - heisenberg's uncertainty principle
        
        impossible to know
        
        exact position
        
        exact speed
        
        describe probability of finding electron in location
      - wave function
        
        mathematical probability of finding an electron in a certain region of space
        
        electron isn't moving around the nucleus in a circle
      - electron probability density
        
        finding electron at given point
        
        derived from wave equations
        
        determine shape of orbitals
        
        also a distribution
      - quantum mechanical model
        
        electrons can be in different orbitals
        
        based on quantum theory
        
        probability for the location of electrons
  - - - describes size
      - describes energy
      - atomic orbital
        
        n increases, energy required for an electron to occupy orbital increases as well
      - whole-number values
      - spaces between atomic shells aren't equal
      - subshells
        
        s, p, d, f
        
        different shapes
    - - shape of orbital
      - from 0 to n-1
      - n=1 only s orbitals exist
      - n=3 there can be s, p and d orbitals
      - no stable element higher than subshell f
    - - orientation
      - relative to other orbitals
      - whole number between +1 and -1 including 0
      - ml=number of orbitals possible
    - - 2s and 3s contain separate areas of 0 probability
      - nodes
      - p orbitals
        
        not spherical
        
        2 lobes separated by node at nucleus
        
        xyz system
      - d orbitals
        
        l=2
        
        occur when n=3+
    - - +1/2 or -1/2
      - electron can spin in 1 of 2 opposite directions
    - - "in a given atom, no 2 electrons can have same set of 4 quantum numbers (n,l,ml,ms))"
  - - - determines chemical behaviour
    - - kinetic energy of electrons as moving about nucleus
      - potential energy attraction between nuclei and electrons
      - potential energy repulsion between 2 electrons
      - can make aproximations
    - - location of electron energy levels
      - number of electrons in energy level
    - - theory that an atom is built by addition of electrons
      - fill orbitals starting at lowest available orbital
      - examine electron configuration of elements
        
        describes relative energies of the electrons in an atom
      - chromium is an exception
        
        copper is an exception
    - - orbitals of same energy
        
        lowest energy configuration
        
        maximum number of unpaired electrons
        
        pauli exclusion
        
        unpaired electrons are represented as having parallel spins
      - put electron in each p,d,f before paring them
        
        all unpaired electrons should have the same spin
    - - use periodic table to determine number of electrons in the atom or ion
      - assign electrons by main energy level
        
        then by sublevel
        
        using an energy-level diagram or an aufbau diagram
      - distribute electrons by main energy according to hund's rule
      - fill each sublevel before starting next sublevel
        
        for anions
        
        add electrons
        
        for cations
        
        remove electrons
    - - valence electrons 4s has lower energy than 4d orbitals
        
        outermost principal quantum level of atom
      - transition metals
        
        highest level are d orbitals
      - 2 half s and d
        
        4s^13d^5
        
        lower energy
        
        more stable
      - n+1 fill before nd orbitals
- - - - energy changes
      - physical or chemical change
      - thermal energy
        
        kinetic and potential
      - heat
        
        transfer of thermal to a cooler object
      - temperature
        
        average kinetic energy
    - - amount of energy transformed over a distance (j)
    - - body or system
        
        position
        
        composition
    - - object doe to motion
    - - combustion of gasoline
        
        products have less potential energy than reactants
    - - "cannot be created or destroyed"
      - no new energy can be made
      - chemical system
        
        reactants and products being studied
      - open
        
        matter and energy can leave
      - closed
        
        energy can leave
        
        calorimeter
        
        matter cannot leave
      - isolated
        
        matter and energy cant leave
  - - - 2 nuclei combine
    - - neutron to split atomic mass
  - - - measure thermal energy changes
      - well insolated chamber
      - temperature change of water
        
        change of thermal energy
      - bomb calorimeter
    - - q=mc(delta T)
      - delta T=T final - T inital
    - - total amount of thermal energy in substance
      - delta H
        
        h>0
        
        endothermic
        
        h<0
        
        exothermic
      - change
        
        energy released/absorbed
        
        molar
        
        change associated with physical, chemical, nuclear change
        
        rules
        
        reversed chemical reaction
        
        reverse delta H sign
      - formation
        
        change in enthalpy that accompanies formation of 1 mol of a compound in standard states
        
        usually solids
        
        sometimes gasses
        
        exothermic
        
        endothermic
  - - - energy required to break given chemical bond
      - positive value
      - type of atom dependent
    - - bond length shortens
  - - - crude oil
      - coal
      - natural gas
    - - ratio of energy output to the energy input of any system
- - - - or product of a chemical reaction
    - - observing appearance of a product
      - tracking changes in gas volume
        
        colour
        
        intensityope
        
        mass
        
        n vessel gas substance produced
        
        pH
        
        pH meter paper or indicator
        
        electrical conductivity
    - - negative means consumption
      - positive means formation
    - - chemical property
        
        relates to the behaviour of pure substance
      - concentration
        
        rate of reaction increases at higher concentrations of reactants
      - surface area
        
        reactants are more than one state of matter
        
        greater surface area
        
        faster the rate
      - temperature
        
        reaction increases with temperature
        
        double every 10 degree celsius increase and halved at every decrease of 10
      - presence of catalyst
        
        substance that alters the rate of chemical reaction without permanent change
        
        polyethene
        
        uses metal catalyst
        
        biological catalyst
        
        living thing
        
        enzymes
        
        heterogeneous catalyst
        
        reactants and catalyst are in different physical states
        
        homogeneous catalyst
        
        same physical states
        
        alternative pathway for reaction
        
        lower activation energy
    - - chemical reactions occur only if reactants collide
        
        need proper orientation
        
        enough kinetic energy
  - - - rise over run
      - instantaneous rate of reaction
        
        rate of a chemical reaction at a single point in time
  - - - transition state
  - - - empirically
      - unique for single reaction at temperature
    - - sum of the exponents in rate law equation
    - - measure
      - test
      - compare
  - - - involves entity collision
      - cant be simpler steps
      - cant be written from overall balanced equation
        
        can be written from elementary step balance
- - - - reactants and products reach constant concentrations
    - - balance between forward and reverse
      - occur simultaneously
    - - reactants decrease
    - - relative concentrations of reactants and products
      - dynamic
    - - proceeds in both forward and reverse directions
      - closed system
      - final concentrations of gases at equilibrium are the same
    - - ICE table
    - - chatelier principle
        
        "chemical system at equilibrium is disturbed by a change in a property, system adjusts in a way that opposes change"
        
        reversible reactions
        
        shift when disturbed
        
        energy as reactant or product
      - equilibrium shift
        
        change in concentration
        
        restore state
      - endothermic reactions
        
        thermal energy removed
        
        reactants decreased
      - exothermic reaction
        
        toward product
        
        to the right
  - - - collisions that won't result in chemical reaction
  - - - product of concentration
      - Q
      - not necessary at equilibrium
    - - occur together at particular moment
  - - - in water form dynamic equilibrium
    - - dynamic
      - between solute and solvent
- - - - acid produce hydrogen ions
      - base produce hydroxide ions
    - - acid is hydrogen ion donor
      - base is hydrogen acceptor
        
        hydroxide is responsible for basic properties
  - - - base accepts proton
    - - acid loses hydrogen ion
    - - related by donating and accepting protons
  - - - strong
        
        ionizes almost 100%
      - weak
        
        partialy ionizes
      - oxyacid
        
        acidic hydrogen atom is attatched to oxygen atom
      - organic
        
        contains carbon
        
        oxygen
        
        hydrogen atoms
        
        carboxylic acid
    - - weak
        
        partially reacts to produce hydroxide
      - strong
        
        dissociates completely
  - - - hydrogen atom transfer from one molecule to another
  - - - aq solution
      - conjugate acid-base pair
      - constant pH
- - - - themselves reduced
  - - - needs an external source of electricity
      - can be recharged
    - - cell that cant be recharged
    - - galvanic cell for which the reactants are continuous
    - - group of 2 or more galvanic cells connected in series
- - - - double and triple
        
        shorter
        
        stronger
        
        pure substances are the same single or triple
        
        1 more bonding pair of electrons
    - - ionic and molecules
      - phoshine fails
      - add more rules
- - - - hydrogen
      - nitrogen
      - chlorine
  - - - net dipole
    - - only non-polar bonds
      - bond dipole sum of zero
    - - determines polarity
- - - - s orbitals
      - p orbitals
      - sp
      - sp^2
      - sp^3
      - directly overlap
        
        sigma bond
        
        s orbitals
        
        p orbitals
  - - - a bond that is formed when sides of the lobes of 2 orbitals overlap
  - - - resistance of liquid to increase surface area
    - - spontaneous rising of a liquid in a narrow tube
      - cohesive
      - adhesive
  - - - composed of 2 or more distinct materials that remain separate from each other when solid
    - - crystal lattice
      - packed positive and negative ions
      - hard
      - brittle solids
      - electricity
      - high melting points
    - - closely packed atoms
      - electrostatic
      - free-moving electrons
      - not all have same properties
      - electron sea theory
        
        electrons move freely
        
        around positive nuclei
      - metallic bonding
        
        hold nuclei and electrons together
        
        metals
    - - composed of molecules
      - intermolecular forces keeping together
      - complex
      - neutral molecules
        
        not conduct current
    - - interwoven network
      - high melting point
      - super hard
    - - 60 carbon atoms
      - hollow cage
    - - carbon atoms
        
        graphite rolled in cylinder
- - - - 1s and 3 p
      - end with 4sp^3
        
        all identical to each other
        
        tetrahedral arrangement
- - - - exchange of electrons
      - non-metals and metals
  - - - hydrogen and period 2 metals
    - - atoms tend to form most stable substances
      - surrounded by 8 electrons in valence shell
      - exceptions
        
        fewer or more than 8 electrons around central atom
    - - valance electrons that are localized to given atom
- - - - polar
      - position positive and negative ends near each other
      - attractive and repulsive
      - 1% as strong as ionic and covalent
      - weaken rapidly
    - - non-polar molecules
      - increase as molecular mass increases
      - all undergo this
      - electrons move around nucleus
      - non-symmetrical electron distribution
      - weak
      - dosent last long
      - polarization
        
        form a dipolar charge distribution
    - - strong diople-diople
      - hydrogen bonded to
        
        oxygen
        
        nitrogen
        
        fluorine
      - partially negative atom on nearby molecule
      - very high boiling points
        
        remain liquids even at high temperatures