key issue 3

functionalism

marxism

neo-marxism & radical criminology

interactionism

realism

new right

subculturalism

feminism

durkheim

crime is inevitable & functional, universal & normal, but only a certain optimal amount, otherwise anomie will occur
boundary maintenance = crime shows members of society where the boundaries of right & wrong are through punishing those who go beyond the boundaries
social solidarity = crime can create cohesion in society through through shared outrage from individuals

merton

strain theory = clear, culturally-defined goals with clear means to achieve them, but not everyone has the same opportunity to share these goals & values
anomie = disconjunction between goals & means
eg = conformists have goals and means, yet innovators have goals but no means eg drug dealer

hirschi

bonds of attachment theory
we need to understand what forces maintain conformity for most people in society
4 bonds that help bind society together: attachment, commitment, involvement & belief

matza

young people 'drift' in & out of deviance as part of the normal process of growing up
use techniques of neutralisation to justify their deviant behaviour
eg = denial of responsibility

capitalism causes crime

generates a selfish mindset (money buys happiness) so products become goal in our lives but not everyone can afford this so turn to crime
bonger = capitalism encourages greed, thus encouraging criminal behaviour

crime is a reaction to exploitation

hebdige = w/c crime is a sign of resistance & rebellion, eg youth subcultures

law is biased in favour of the rich

bourgeoisie criminalise acts that threaten their interests
hold all power over the state & law making
chambliss = 1349 vagrancy laws were said to be good for he public, but actually just increased profits

law is selectively enforced

certain types of crime are more rigourousluy dealt with than others
sutherland = those who committed white-collar crime got away with it

chivalry thesis

pollack = men are taught to be chivalrous towards women
women are protected by this chivalrous factor

lack of opportunities

women traditionally defined to the domestic sphere, so had less opportunity to indulge in criminal behaviour
however, is argued to be changing
wilkinson = women are just as likely as men to engage in white-collar crime

sex-role theory

sutherland = children are socialised into clear gender roles which influence their potential for criminal behaviour
female roles = caring, passivity & domesticity
therefore, lack the values associated with criminal behaviour

social control

heidensohn = women are more closely controlled & supervised in society than males are
carlen = crimes more likely to be committed by women who hadn't been offered class' gender deals

miller

saw the w/c socialised into deviant subcultural values known as 'focal concerns'
trouble, toughness, excitement, smartness, fatalism, autonomy

cohen

youths rebound from conventional failure (eg school) & develop status frustration
therefore, they choose a delinquent subculture to gain this status, eg anti-school subculture

cloward & ohlin

lower w/c delinquents share their own deviant subcultural values
3 types of delinquent subcultures = criminal, conflict & retreatist
eg = conflict is violence to defend territory

becker

acts are only deviant because society deems them to be
a label applies to those who are caught which leads to a deviant career (opportunities are blocked, so leads to further deviance)
can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy & label can become their master status

lemert

societal reaction to behaviour is more significant than the behaviour itself
primary deviance = deviant acts that aren't publicly labelled
if behaviour is repetitive & highly visible, it will begin to affect the individual's self-concept

goffman

when a label becomes a master status, it changes & replaces their identity
proved this with prison inmates - they fear being released & losing their new identity, so often go to great lengths to remain inside
therefore, some institutions reinforce rather than reduce deviance

chambliss

the same criminal/deviant act can be committed but can be responded to in different ways
his study of saints & roughnecks proved this - saints were excused, but roughnecks seen as bad & prosecuted more often
labels lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy

left

young

society excludes increasing numbers of people & there's a link between social exclusion & crime
economic exclusion leads to social exclusion & in turn crime
creates a culture of fear, which can lead to scapegoating

lea & young = 3 key factors which influence crime levels

relative deprivation = feel this when comparing themselves to other members of society
marginalisation = outside groups have minimal representation in society
subcultures = provides forms of relief from relative deprivation

right

matthews & young = 'square of crime' -
crime arises at an intersection - must supplement with role of public opinion for example

wilson = rational choice theory

after weighing up risks & rewards, people make a rational choice to commit crime
eg = covid regulations with fine of £50-100 - low risk, high reward

wilson & kellings = broken windows theory

once communal barriers have broken down, deviance can happen anywhere
maintaining appearance of an area is key to upholding law & order

wilson & hernstein

some people are biologically predisposed to crime
these 'criminal traits' will be heightened if they lack proper socialisation, eg single parent families

hall et al = policing the crisis

economic crisis led to government creating a media outrage on mugging to divert attention from themselves
black afro-carribean males = scapegoats
real causes of crime were never addressed

centre for contemporary cultural studies

analysed deviant youth subcultures in 70s/80s
attitudes of each subculture were seen as expressions of resistance in a capitalist society & the class inequalities affecting their lives

taylor, walton & young = 'radical theory of crime'

inequalities lie at the root of crime
crimes are often deliberate & conscious acts with political motives

murray

underclass exists who lack socialisation into norms & values by predominantly lone parents
this leads them to crime & deviance
shadow economies = young males lack motivation provided by father figures, so look to earn through these, eg drug dealing

murray & herrnstein = correlation between low iq and criminality - people with low iq are more likely to commit crime