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Grade 11 Biology: WE CAN DO IT! - Coggle Diagram
Grade 11 Biology: WE CAN DO IT!
Binomial system
DKPCOFGS
Examples: Asian tiger (Eukaryota Animalia Chordata Mammalia Felidae Panthera tigris), sunflower (Eukaryota Plantae Angiosperms Dicotyledonae Asterales Asteraceae Helianthus annuus)
Binomial nomenclature
Three domains: Eubacteria, Eukaryota, Archaea -- peptidoglycan? histones with DNA? introns? glycogen for plasma membrane?
Recognition features of 4 plant phlya (bryophyta filinophyta gymnosperms angiosperms): vegetative organs, cambium, reproductive organs, others
Recognition features of 7 animal phyla (Porifera Cnidaria Platyhelminthes Mollusca Annelida Arthropoda Chordata)
Recognition features of 5 chordate classes (Ray-finned fish Amphibians Reptiles Birds Mammals)
Ecosystem
Species: A group of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring
-- Crossbreeding is bw dif't species and the offspring is often infertile, preventing the mixed genes from being passed on
Population: A group of organisms of the same species living in the same area at the same time
Community: A group of populations of different species living together and interacting with one another --
All species rely on another for long term survival.
Two modes of nutrition: Autotrophs and heterotrophs
Autotrophs: organisms that produce their own organic compounds from inorganic compounds in their abiotic env't
-NEED a supply of ENERGY, and must obtain inorganic nutrients from its abiotic environment
Heterotrophs: organisms that obtain their organic compounds from other organisms
Must have their organic
and
inorganic nutrients from surrounding
Saprotrophs: Heterotrophs that feed on dead organic matters by external digestion
-- Live ON the food, and secrete digestive enzymes into the surrounding and absorb the products of digestion
Detritivores: Heterotrophs that feed on detritus (e.g. dead leaves) by ingestion
-- Live IN the food, and ingest the food by endocytosis into food vacuole or by ingestion into the gut
Consumers: Heterotrophs that feed on recently living organisms by ingestion and internal digestion
-- They are mobile, and ingest by endocytosis or into the gut.
Ecosystem: A community and its surrounding abiotic environment
The relationships are complex (abiotic can cause adaptations of living things, or living things can shape the abiotic factor too)
Mesocosm: an experimental model that contains essential elements of an ecosystem:
ENERGY must be supplied
AUTOTROPHS must be there to produce organic compounds
SAPROTROPHS must be there to decompose organic compounds back into chemical elements
Nutrients are recycled as atoms remain unchanged
Can do quadrat sampling and chi-squared test to investigate the association between two species (presence/absence)
PLANTS
Plant Reproduction
Plant cycle goes: flowering --> pollination --> double fertilization --> seed dispersal -- (dormancy) --> germination --> growth --> flowering
Flowering: the angiosperm want to flower at the right time when pollination can happen well - so use LENGTH OF THE DARK PERIOD as a signal for flowering
Pigment phytochrome is activated when it absorbs red light (660 nm): Pr --> Pfr // this is reversed when there's no red light but there is far-red light in darkness: Pfr --> Pr
Short day plants: In long-nights when Pfr level becomes low despite the slow reversion, the Pfr that inhibits flowering time gene is gone.. so can flower.
Long day plants: In short nights when Pfr level stays high due to the slower reversion, the Pfr activates the flowering time gene which is transcribes and translates into a transcription factor that induces flowering.
This change in gene expression happens in the "shoot apex" of the plant
Pollination: The transfer of pollen grains from anther to the stigma between the same species
happen after flowering
often rely on animals (pollinators), wind, etc
Double fertilization: The fusion of male gametes in pollen with egg cells in the ovule of ovary.
Pollen tube grows down the style of the flower, transfering the pollens to the ovule.
The pollen fertilizes the ovule into the plant embryo
Another pollen fertilizes other cells into the endosperm
Seed dispersal: travel of the seed far away from its parent plant
reduces competition for resources
allows spread of the species (evolution)
often by wind, water, animals that eat the fruits with seed, etc
Germination: The growth of early plant from the seed
often has a period of dormancy (dormant phase in the whole cycle) to make sure that germination happens at the right time
dormancy ends when ... germination starts when...
water rehydrates the cells for metabolism
the hormone Giberrelin works to activate mitosis and synthesis of amylase for breaking down starch in the cotyledon
Germination lab can investigate the effects of many variables (e.g. types of soil) on number of germinated seeds or length of dormancy, etc
Xylem transport: water is transported from roots to leaves by the transpiration pull
Xylem vessel is made up of dead cells; cellulose cell wall is left only and lignin goes helical
Transpiration: Water evaporates from the spongy mesophyll cells into the moist air space, and then water diffuses down its gradient into the atmosphere.
Because water is cohesive (attractive of other water molecules), the neighboring water molecules by the transpiration pull.
Because water is adhesive to the cellulose in the cell wall, it can climb up the xylem vessel against the gravity.
At the roots, mineral ions are actively transported into the root cells (against the gradient) so that the water diffuses down the osmolarity gradient into the root cells too.
There should be a continuous stream of water from roots to leaves
DRAW GRAPH TO OUTLINE THE RELATIONSHIPS WITH temperature, humidity, and windspeed
Phloem transport: solution of organic compounds (sugar and amino acids - mainly sucrose) is transported from source to sinks (
translocation
)
Phloem loading: sap of sucrose flows into the phloem sieve tube
most sucrose come in by active transport (down conc gradient of H+) -- so called
apoplastic
loading (proton pumps, ATP, cotransporter)
some sucrose come in by diffusion so called
symplastic
loading
Phloem sieve tube cell structure
: porous sieve plates, no nuclei, rigid cell wall to resist hydrostatic pressure
sieve tube elements need help from companion cells because it lacks nuclei and organelles -- it also has
plasmodesmata
that connect cytoplasm and mediate symplastic transport
companion cell
provide metabolic help for phloem sieve tube and facilitate loading and unloading at source and sink: infolding, mitochondria, membrane transports
OUTLINE THE
MASS FLOW
between source and sink due to hydrostatic pressures
Photosynthesis
: Production of organic compounds (e.g. glucose) from inorganic compounds using light energy
DRAW and ANNOTATE
absorption spectrum for chlorophyll a and b, and action spectrum of plants for photosynthesis rate
DRAW and ANNOTATE
chloroplast with its function
Photosynthesis takes place in chloroplasts
Light-dependent reactions: Photolysis, electron transport chain, ATP synthase using H+ gradient
Light-independent reactions: Calvin cycle from RuBP to glycerate 3-phosphate, than to triose phosphate coupled with oxidation of NADPH and breakdown of ATP, then CYCLE!
DRAW GRAPHS and OUTLINE
the relationships between rates of photosynthesis and CO2 concentration, temperature, light intensity
Cell Structure
Outline the difference between prokaryotic cells and eukaryotic cells: nucleus, compartments, DNA naked, ..
DRAW and ANNOTATE
electron micrographs of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cells
Outline
the structures and functions of eukaryotic organelles: nucleus, free ribosomes, rough ER, Golgi apparatus, vesicles, mitochondria, chloroplast, vacuole
Outline the basic cell theory and explain the exceptions to the theory: Muscle fibers (share cytoplasm), Giant algae (big), aseptate fungal hyphae (connected cytoplasm)
DRAW and ANNOTATE
functions of life from Paramecium and from Chlamydomonas
Calculate magnification = image size / actual size
CELL RESPIRATION
Cell respiration: The
controlled
release of energy from
organic
compounds in cells
EXPLAIN
how ATP is a good immediate source of energy: PO4-PO4 bond
ex) NAME examples of active processes
DISTINGUISH
anaerobic and aerobic respiration: O2 yes/no, ATP yield, products
Anaerobic respiration involves glycolysis: breaking down glucose into pyruvate by coupling with oxidation of reduced NAD and some ATP yield
in cytoplasm
Give examples of waste products:
yeast (ethanol), humans (lactate) --> use?
Aerobic respiration continues
fully
breaking down carbon compounds (pyruvate from glycolysis)
in mitochondria
, products: CO2, H2O
Outline Link reaction (pyruvate --> acetyl CoA)
Outline Krebs Cycle (OAA+acetyl CoA --> 5 --> 4 --> 4 --> OAA)
Outline oxidative phosphorylation (ETC and Chemiosis: ATP synthesis) -- oxygen is the final acceptor
DRAW and ANNOTATE
mitochondria
Cell Membrane structure
DRAW and ANNOTATE
Singer-Nicolson model
Main components of cell membrane are: phospholipids, membrane proteins, cholesterol
OUTLINE the role of cholesterol in the property of plasma membrane:
reduces permeability and fluidity of the membrane
OUTLINE the role of phospholipids in forming the bilayer: Amphipathic, Membrane fluidity
NAME different types of membrane proteins: peripheral and integral proteins -- also NAME 6 functions of membrane proteins
Outline the three pieces of evidence that falsified Davson-Danielli model: 1) structure of membrane proteins, 2) antibody-tracking for membrane fluidity, 3) freeze-etch model
CELL MEMBRANE TRANSPORT
Simple diffusion: Movement of particles across the plasma membrane (passing between phospholipid molecules) from high to low solute concentration
Facilitated diffusion: movement of particles from areas of high to low solute concentration through membrane proteins (channel)
Osmosis
: The net movement of water particles across the plasma membrane from areas of low to area of high solute concentration, through aquaporins (channel protein for water)
Active Transport: uses energy to transport materials against the concentration gradient
Bulk transport as membrane folds to form vesicle, or vesicle joins the membrane. (Possible because of
membrane fluidity
)
endocytosis (pinocytosis, phagocytosis), exocytosis
Transport through
protein pump
, using energy stored in ATP
e.g. Na/K pump that 3 Na+ move out and 2 K+ move in
Vesicular transport: rER --> Golgi, forms vesicles --> exocytosis
Water Properties
Water molecules are polar due to difference in electronegativity between O and H:
DRAW
-- thus it forms hydrogen bonds with others:
DRAW
Due to the intermolecular forces, water have these properties: Thermal (absorb much heat before going gas), Cohesive/Adhesive (stick together), Solvent (dissolve polar and ionic subs)
Thermal: Has a higher MP/BP, specific heat capacity, heat of vaporization, heat of fusion than methane
e.g. we use our sweat to cool us down because it takes away much heat when it evaporates
Solvent: So hydrophilic particles like NaCl, O2, glucose, and amino acids can be freely transported in
blood
And hydrophobic particles like lipids need to form complexes (e.g. lipoproteins) to move freely in blood
BIOMOLECULES and METABOLISM
Metabolism
: A web of
all the
enzyme-catalyzed
reactions happening in a cell or organism
In cycle or in chain
Each reaction is catalyzed by a specific enzyme
Catabolism (metabolism that breaks down complex into simpler) e.g. hydrolysis of organic polymers/dimers, or anabolism (metabolism that synthesizes complex from simpler) e.g. condensation to build dimers or polymers
Usefulness of carbon as it forms four bonds
Lipids: Phospholipid or triglyceride made up of fatty acids and glycerol, maybe phosphate (Fatty acids are hydrophobic)
DRAW
saturated fatty acid
Distinguish saturated, unsaturated fatty acids, then monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fatty acids
Also recognize cis-bond and trans-bond
Outline the condensation reaction that produces triglycerides
DINSTINGUISH
energy storage: carbs vs. lipids
KNOW
the lipids health risk
and
CALCULATE
Body Mass Index = kg / m2
Carbohydrates: Made up of monosaccharides (e.g. glucose, galactose, fructose) (Hydrophilic)
DRAW
alpha-glucose
Monosaccharides: What are maltose, lactose, sucrose made from?
COMPARE and CONTRAST
the three (four) types of polysaccharides: cellulose (beta), starch (amylose, amylopectin), glycogen
Formation of glycosidic bond during condensation reactions of monosaccharides
Proteins: Polypeptide made up of amino acids (total of 20), so lots of dif't combinations possible -- coded from a gene, and synthesized at the ribosomes
DRAW
general amino acid
Outline four levels of protein structure
Thus proteins have a specific
conformation
and can be
denatured
from extreme heat or pH
6 EXAMPLES
of protein functions: Rhodopsin, Rubisco, Collagen, Spider silk, Insulin, Immunoglobulin
DRAW
and outline the formation of peptide bond
ENZYMES
Explain the activity of enzyme using molecular motion, collision, kinetic energy ...,
active site
for specific binding sites of the substrates
SKETCH
graphs of relationships between enzyme activity, and temperature, pH, substrate concentration
Enzymes lower the
activation energy
for a reaction (by providing an alternate transition state)
DESCRIBE
how competitive or non-competitive enzyme inhibitor works (using collision ...) and
SKETCH
graphs for substrate concentration too
OUTLINE
how the end-inhibition works with an example of a metabolic pathway from threonine to isoleucine
(initial reactant and end product)
Falsification of vitalism (that organic compounds are only synthesized by living things) by artificial synthesis of urea
IDENTIFY
type of biomolecule from ratio and CHO, CHO, CHON, CHONP
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic Acids S/F
DRAW
a nucleotide
DRAW
DNA and RNA strands
Distinguish btw DNA and RNA: 1)nitrogenous bases, 2)# of strands, 3)
pentose sugar
Explain the main features of DNA structure: complementary base pairing (Chargaff's findings) due to
H bonding
, antiparallel, double helix)
Know the discovery of double helix from Watson, Crick, and Rosalind's findings
OUTLINE
the Hershey-Chase experiment: radioactive P and S to take virus' genetic material
OUTLINE
the structure of
nucleosomes
for eukaryotic DNA -- associated with histones
GENETIC TECHNOLOGY
OUTLINE
the process of Sanger's gene sequencing [7]
Outline
the process of Polymerase Chain Reaction: Amplify DNA sample using Taq polymerase
Outline
gel electrophoresis: separated charged particles according to size
Outline genetic modification (gene transfer by cutting desired gene with endonuclease and forming a plasmid using ligase)
Outline
cloning
Give examples of natural cloning
Outline the process of artificial cloning
GENE and CHROMOSOMES
Gene: a length of DNA that codes for a specific trait (heritable)
Has a specific locus (chromosome number and location in it)
Variations of genes by a few bases
Compare number of genes:
Genome: total genes in an organism or a cell
Chromosome carries genes in a linear sequence, specific to a species
DISTINGUISH
eukaryotic and prokaryotic chromosomes: shape (circular vs. linear / histones / nucleus)
Bacterial conjugate that builds bridge to transfer plasmid
(allow evolution of new traits)
Know haploid or diploid nuclei (homologous chromosomes: same shape, same size, alleles)
Compare chromosome number and diploid number
MEIOSIS
Meiosis: process of cell division that produces four genetically-different haploid sex cells
Diploid x1 --> Haploid x4
only happen in sex organs (testis, ovary)
With diagrams
,
OUTLINE
the process of meiosis: PMAT, PMAT
DISTINGUISH
mitosis and meiosis // meiosis I and meiosis II
OUTLINE
two processes that result in genetic variations
DRAW
chiasmata and explain the process of
crossing over [3]
OUTLINE
how random arrangement leads to different nuclei
There's random fusion of gametes, too.
Non-disjuction is when chromosomes fail to separate --> one extra or one missing chromosome
(e.g. trisomy 21 is down syndrome)
TWO different methods of obtaining samples for karyotype: chorionic villus sampling (risk but earlier), amniocentesis (less risk but later)
CELL CYCLE
Outline the cell cycle using a circle diagram
EXPLAIN
the control of cell cycles using checkpoints and cyclins
+cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and phosphates
Know
how tumors develop, and that there is a positive correlation btw smoking and cancer
INTERPHASE: Name 6 processes that take place during interphase - DOCTOR
Outline the process of semi-conservative replication of DNA using specific
enzymes
CELL DIVISION: mitosis and cytokinesis
Outline the process of mitosis: chromosomes condense by supercoiling during prophase
Identify the stage of mitosis from micrographs
Calculate mitotic index: # cells in mitosis / total # of cells
Consider the difference in cytokinesis btw animal cells and plant cells: cleavage furrow vs. cell plate
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS (GENE EXPRESSION)
TRANSCRIPTION: synthesis of mRNA from DNA (gene)
DISTINGUISH
gene expression btw prokaryotes and eukaryotes
EXPLAIN
the effect of environment on the gene expression (e.g. bacteria and lac operon)
Outline
the regulation of gene expression: 1) using promoters, 2) using nucleosomes (methylation and acetylation) --> consider its usefulness in epigenetics
*DESCRIBE
the process of transcription*
Outline the post-transcriptional modification: splicing and cap&tail for
eukaryotes
TRANSLATION: synthesis of polypeptide from mRNA
*DESCRIBE
the process of translation: initiation, elongation, termination
OUTLINE
the structure of ribosome
OUTLINE
the structure of tRNA
EXPLAIN
the mechanism of tRNA-activating enzyme
DEDUCE
the sequence of mRNA given DNA sequence (or vice versa), or sequence of amino acids from mRNA (using codons)
HUMAN PHYSIOLOGY
Digestive system
DRAW and ANNOTATE
the digestive system with organ names, functions, and pH
Digestion: Breaking down complex organic compounds into simpler, absorbable ones
DESCRIBE
the process of peristalsis in gut (circular and longitudinal muscle)
IDENTIFY
Chewing and churning as mechanical digestion
OUTLINE
the role of pancreas
Name the digestive enzymes, their substrates, products, and where they were produced, with optimum pH
Dialysis tubing as a model for digestion & absorption
Absorption of digested materials across epithelial cells into blood or lymph vessels
ANNOTATE
the structure of intestinal wall - villi: mucosa, submucosa, muscle layer (circular, longitudinal), serosa
DRAW and ANNOTATE
the structure of villus, also noting the structure of an epithelial cell (goblet)
OUTLINE
the process of triglyceride absorption
OUTLINE
the process of glucose absorption
OUTLINE
the whole process of starch digestion (+dextrin and dextrinase for amylopectin)
Know
egestion, and
EXPlAIN
the role of dietary fibers (e.g. cellulose)
Blood system
DRAW and ANNOTATE
the structure of a heart
Outline
the closed, double circulation
DISTINGUISH
structure and function of
artery, capillary, and vein
: diameter, pressure, wall structure (elastic, muscle), valves
Arteries have lots of elastic and muscular tissue, high bp)
Name the THREE layers of arterial wall: Tunica...
Vasoconstriction (of circular muscle) increases BP, especially control blood flow in arterioles
Capillaries are one cell thick
permeable
, very small diameter for RBC and diffusion occurs
Natural leakage of plasma
Veins have low bp and valves
INTERPRET
the changing BP over the distance from ventricular push
BP can be measured by using blood pressure monitor, systolic and diastolic pressures
KNOWLEDGE: Atherosclerosis (fatty tissues in blood vessels) --> thrombosis (block) --> heart attack // or --> hypertension
DESCRIBE and EXPLAIN
the cardiac cycle with changing pressures and valves opening/closing
Memorize P, QRS, T on the cardiogram
Heart muscle is myogenic
NAME
features that enable cardiac cell to stimulate one another: Y-shape, intercalated discs, gap junctions.
OUTLINE
the electrical control of heart rate: Sinoatrial node --> atria --> AV node --> Purkinje fibers
Fibrillation is when e- control fails
Defibrillator applies e- discharge to restore rhythm
Cardiac arrest: when blood supply to heart reduces and heart muscle is deprived of O2
Heart rate is also controlled by nerves (two nerves from medulla) - pH, O2, BP, or by hormones (e.g. epinephrine) - stress
Heart beats "lub"(AV) "dub"(SL)
Coronary heart disease is due to lack of supply to heart tissue
