History - France.2

Revolutionary and counter revolutionary groups

The need for change:

  • Needed to create a new type of government.
  • Four important issues were agreed upon:
    -France should still have a monarchy, but not an absolute one.Needed to have limited on royal power and power had to be shared with the people.
    -Aristocratic and clergy privileges to be abolished, and significant positions given be merit.
    -Fairer system of taxation.
    -Proper accountability in government and a fairer justice system.
  • No one knew how to achieve this. There was no obvious leaders and members of the Assembly were new and inexperienced in politics - had never had this option before.
  • In 1790, the Assembly started to work on reconstruction; focusing on the tax system, local government, the justice system, and the role and position of the church.
  • Many of the changes made in 1790 lasted many years after the revolution but did not address the problems affecting the poorest people in France - most notably the food crisis.

Main revolutionary groups:


- Jacobins:
-Formed 1789.
-Open to all citizens.
-Had groups across all of France.
-Particularly powerful in Paris and had strong connections with Parisian working class.
-Most radical of the groups.
-Argued strongly for the execution of the king, and the end of the aristocracy and the church.


- Feuillants:
-Formed 1791.
-AKA The Society of the Friends of the Constitution.
-Conservative.
-Strongly supported a constitutional monarchy.
-Opponents of the Jacobins.


- Girondins:
-Formed 1791.
-Named for the Gironde region in France which many members came from.

  • Politically in the middle of the Jacobins and Feuillants.
    -On the fence/divided over main issues e.g. execution of the king.

Failures of the Counter-Revolutionary Groups:

  • Royal family, aristocracy, upper clergy.
  • Lack of realism - Louis, the royal family, and the courtiers failed to realise or understand the depth of feeling in France against the Ancient Regime system. Louis unable to accept that there would have to be limits to his power.
  • Internal divisions among the royalists - 40,000 emigres who fled France couldn't agree on what they should do. Some wanted to restore the Ancient Regime and others felt they needed to meet the revolutionaries halfway with a constitutional monarchy.
  • Divison over king vs church.
    - Lack of leadership:
    -Louis XVI executed 1793.
    -Louis XVII died 1795.
    -Louis XVIII had no leadership or people skills.
    - Lack or foreign support.
    -At different times, Austria, Prussia, the Netherlands and Britain all waged war against the revolutionaries but never won.
    • Austria less concerned after Marie Antionette's execution 1793.

Who were the Counter-Revolutionaries?

  • Made up of the King, the royal family, and the majority of the 1st and 2nd Estates.
  • French Revolution mainly situated in Paris and although it did spread throughout France, support for it was not universal.
  • Divides among Counter-Revolutionaries
    -Some thought the King should refuse any changes and continue on, wanted to restore the ancient regime asap.
    -Others felt that certain proposed changes were reasonable and believed the king should meet them halfway.
  • Looked to the King for leadership but he was indecisive and did not take a firm stand.
  • Not well organised, no clear programme of action.
  • Lacked strong leadership and a clear plan.
    • Third Estate unhappy with majority of ancient regime, but counter-revolutionaries had no solutions for these issues.
  • Louis really needed to choose someone as an intermediary between himself and the revolutionaries.
    • Court of mirabeau considered, but the King and court distracted him.

Aims of the Revolutionary Groups:

  • Attempts to fix financial crisis:
    • Seize and sell land and valuables belonging to the Church.
    • Introduce temporary paper money which stimulated economic growth and stopped the money shortage.
  • New tax system- based on percentage of income. Hated consumption taxes were abolished. New land tax for property owners. All these dealt with one of the major issues before 1789 - tax equality.
  • Local government system replaced. 83 new departments set up, designed to end the regional differences, to have more of a united France with stronger connections between Paris and other regions. Elections introduced for government officials.
  • Justice - now more equal, lawyers free if needed, not run in the interests of aristocracy, justice officials to be elected.

Civil Constitution of the Clergy 1790:

  • Church was major target of the revolution.
  • Some monasteries were dissolved and the Church's right to raise taxes was abolished under the August decrees but these reforms were not controversial and no one complained.
  • July 1790 the Assembly introduced the Civil Constitution of the Clergy.
    -Reduced number of bishops 135 to 83.
    -Citizens to elect bishops and priests.
    -State pays clergy's wages, each diocese looked after by part of government.
    -Pope has no authority in France.
  • Assembly added a requirement for the clergy to sign an oath of loyalty to the Constitution.
  • Pope publicly condemned it and all revolutionary reforms.
  • Divided the French people.

Symbols of the Revolution:

  • Liberte, égalité, fraternite
  • Freedom, equality, brotherhood
  • Slogan for the French Revolution.
    • Tricolore
  • Worn by revolutionaries in cockade form
  • Blue=clergy White=nobility Red=3rd Estate
    • Phrygian cap
  • Worn by freed Roman slaves.
    • Gallic rooster
  • National symbol of France.

Changes in Government 1790-1795

Flight to Varennes:

  • Louis had resisted advice to flee France, believed it was wrong to desert his country and scared another would take his place.
  • The Pope's condemnation of the Revolution stirred up more violence and no one had even successful at doing anything about it.
  • Many foreign royalty expressed disapproval of the Revolution but no one offered help.
  • Louis decided his best point of action would be to escape France and try to get foreign help.
  • 20 June 1791: Louis and his family fled Paris in disguise, aiming for the France/Luxembourg border where they had managed to be met by Austrian troops sent by Marie Antionette's family.
  • They were caught on the 21st and dragged back to Paris, where they stayed until their executions in 1793.

Champ de Mars Massacre:

  • 17th July 1791.
  • 50,000 gathered to sign a petition that the king lose his position after the Flight to Varennes, and 6,000 signed it.
    • Two suspicious people were hanged after being caught trying to look at ladies' ankles.
  • National Guard trying to control the group led to the group throwing stones at them. The Guard fired blank warning shots but they didn't stop, and 50 were killed.

Another constitution:

  • September 1791.
  • National Assembly became the Legislative Assembly.
  • The constitution kept the monarchy, and the king could veto new laws, but the legislative Assembly made the laws and had sovereignty.
  • Legislative Assembly members elected by French citizens.
  • 2/3 of French adult males eligible to vote now.
  • France was now a constitution monarchy but it only would last a year.

Revolutionary wars

  • European monarchies supported Louis XVI, not the revolution.
    • Outraged by his imprisonment.
    • Threatened by the DORMAC and the revolution itself.
  • Austria and Prussia were the strongest European countries and were particularly threatened.
  • Issues with France - winter 1791-92.
    • Fear that Austria and/or Prussia would help stop the revolution.
  • Noble emigres asked the governments of their new countries for help, and the French royal family were in contact with other royal families and the emigres.
  • The 1791 harvest was bad, bread shortage, food prices rising.
  • Some clergy members refused to take the Civil constitution of the Clergy oath.
  • Radical and inexperienced Assembly members started to demand a war against Austria and Prussia, despite the face neither had expressed interest in invading France. They hope that war would force Louis to takes sides and not:
    • Fully support the revolution.
    • Abdicate and leave.
      - Declared war on Austria April 1792.
    • France unprepared for war.
    • French forces extremely weak.
    • Did not force French to decide what side they were on and clear the king and queen supported Austria.
  • Alliance of Austria, Prussia, Britain and Holland - swore to defend an invasion of France and swore to restore Louis XVI to his full powers.
  • Prussian troops began marching on Paris and it seemed as though they would win, but the French government increased forced through conscription and had a surprising victory at the Battle of Valmy, September 1792.
  • The Revolutionary Wars continue into 1802 and while we wont be focusing on them, it is useful to remember they are going on in the background.

Economic issues:

  • Major cause of the French Revolution to begin with.
  • France was still majorly in debt.
  • Food still scarce.
  • As Revolution developed, upper class third estates were able to buy land that had been seized from the 1st and 2nd estates.
  • Everyone else suffered and division arise.

September Massacres, 1792:

  • Outbreak of violence.
  • Concerned about foreign armies, the hungry working class of Paris took control of the city and the National Guard stormed the Tulieres Palace. Hundreds of royal supporters were killed, as well as hundreds of the king's own bodyguards. Power seemed tore in the hands of the Parisians, not the Assembly.

National Convention:

  • King and family arrested and imprisoned in the Temple.
  • End of constitutional monarchy.
  • Assembly dissolved, replaced with the National Convention, France a republic.
  • Elected - all males could now vote. Most democratic election in Europe but less than 25%of eligible voters actually voted.
  • National Convention members were young and middle class, lawyers or businessmen, but some were working class.

Reign of Terror

Trial and Execution of Louis XVI:

  • National Convention's priority was to figure out what to do with the king and queen.
    - 11 December 1792: Louis' trial.
    • Tried on charges of treason, in the form of being anti-revolution.
    • Had a beard as he hadn't been allowed a razor in prison,
    • Members voted on if Louis should be executed or not. 361 for, 288 against, 72 chose not to vote.
    • Louis was allowed to have a farewell meal with his family.
      - 21st January 1793: Louis' execution.
    • Age 38.
    • By guillotine.
    • They did a drum roll so no could could hear his last words.

Trial and Execution of Marie Antionette:

  • Her and her son were imprisoned in the Conciergerie.
  • She became ill and her son was taken away.
  • Executed 16th October 1793.
    • Taken to her execution in a cart, her hair had been cut off and her hands were tied behind her back.
    • Last words 'I am sorry sir, did I not mean to put it there' after stepping on the executioner's foot.
    • Guillotined, age 37.
  • Louis XVII died in mysterious circumstances 1795 which officially ended the monarchy, but he wasn't really king.

Instability:
Their executions didn't solve any problems, and led to further instability due to:

  • People running the country with no experience in government.
  • The revolutionary wars continuing - deaths and money.
  • Several provinces opposing Louis' execution.
  • Divide in the National Convention between those who wanted even more radical reform and those that didn't.
  • Hunger.
  • Radical and uncensored press disseminated extreme ideas.

Maximilien Robespierre:

  • Born 1758.
  • Died July 1794.
  • Was an original member of the Estates General in 1789.
  • A lawyer.
  • Seems to have always been anti-monarchy.
  • Leader of the Jacobins and therefore in power in France 1793-94.

Committee of Public Safety, April 1793:

  • 12 members, essentially running France.
  • Robespierre became President July 1793, enabling him to control French government.
  • Formed to protect France against domestic and foreign enemies, and to defend the gains made by the French Revolution by eliminating all who opposed or criticised it.
  • Under Robespierre, the committee became virtually dictatorial.

Law of Suspects, September 1793:

  • Ordered the arrest of anyone suspected or accused of being counter-revolutionary.
    -No evidence needed.
    • Accused were not allowed lawyers.
    • Tried by Jacobin agents rather than judges.
    • Two possible outcomes; acquittal or death.
    • People accusing others in large amounts to prove they are pro-revolution.
  • Over 5,000 arrested, 16,000 executed, over 10,000 died from prison conditions, 15,000 killed without trial.

June 1794 Law - formally established the Reign of Terror:

  • The Revolutionary Tribunal shall have a President and four Vice Presidents.
  • The Revolutionary Tribunal is institute to punish the enemies of the people.
  • The enemies of the people are those who seek to destroy public liberty either by force or cunning and:
    • those who try to re-establish the monarchy
    • those who try to oppose the National Assembly in any way
    • those who prevented the army's success or helped the enemies of the republic
    • those who have impeded the provisioning of Paris and profiteers
    • those who have spread false news and misled opinion
    • those who support the aristocracy and oppose the principles of the Republic
  • The penalty provided for all offences listed here is death.

Reign of Terror stats:

  • 80,000 - 200,000 executed.
  • Approx. 500,000 imprisoned - 1/60 of French Revolution.
  • December 1793 was the month with the highest number of executions.
  • Ended with Robespierre's execution.

Key figures:

  • Robespierre.
  • George Danton
    • First president of the Committee of public Safety.
    • Chief fore in the overthrow of the monarchy and creation of the First Republic.
    • A moderate who opposed Revolution extremism.
    • Executed April 1794.
  • Jean-Paul Marat
    • Significant ally to Robespierre.
    • Journalist and politician during Revolution and Reign of Terror.
    • Stabbed by a Girondin sympathiser and royalist, Charlotte Corday, while taking a medicinal bath, 13th July 1793.

Cult of Robespierre:

  • Wanted to completely eradicate Catholicism in France.
  • Introduced the Cult of the Supreme Being to replace Catholicism.
  • National state religion based on patriotism, republicanism and deism.
    • Deism - an enlightenment idea that God existed, but did not interfere with humans.
  • Purpose was to educate and enlighten France.
  • Not very popular.

Fall of Robespierre:

  • Other revolutionary groups were concerned at how radical the Jacobins had become, and for many, the Law of Suspects was a step too far.
    • Robespierre too dictatorial.
    • Committee of Public Safety too powerful and ignoring the National Convention.
    • Robespierre planned to purge the Committee.
    • National Convention acted against Robespierre in what became known as the Thermidorian Reaction.
    • Arrested 1794.
    • 80,000 prisoners released.
    • Robespierre failed suicide attempt. Tried to shoot himself in the mouth but missed and ended up getting his jaw.
    • Broken teeth removed by doctor and jaw bandaged.
    • Execution 28th July 1794.
      • With 21 others, who were supporters of him.
      • He was the 10th to be executed.
      • His bandage was taken off and he died screaming of the pain.
      • Crowds cheered for 15 minutes.
      • Chucked into an unmarked grave.

The Directory

How did it work?
Council to five hundred:

  • 500 elected members.
  • Proposed laws.

Council of Ancients:

  • 250 members.
  • Approved or rejected proposed laws.

Five directors:

  • Chosen by the Ancients from a list drawn up by the Five Hundred.
  • Responsible for choosing junior ministers, army leaders, tax collectors and other officials.

Problems of the Directory:

  • Treasury empty, government bankrupt.
  • Rising prices.
  • Currency shortage - led to a barter economy developing.
  • Public resentment of the wars and conscription.
  • Uncensored press - place for monarchists and radicals to express extreme views.
  • Remaining existence of factions - royalists, Jacobins, moderates - however, this is largely why the Directory survived - no one group strong enough to overthrow them.

Attempts to overthrow the Directory:

  • Directory had the support of the army.
  • Jacobins and other radicals felt the Directory members had betrayed the revolution.
  • Severe winter 1795-96 led to food shortage. Led to riots and calls for the 1795 Constitution to be abolished. Directory got the army to suppress the revolts.
  • 1796 - Babeuf Plot.

Successes of the Directory:

  • France doing well in Revolutionary Wars.
    • Had gained territory in Italy.
    • Made peace with Austria.
  • Economy improving.
    • Sensible taxation.
    • Better harvests.
  • Effective local government.
    • Quite successful at putting the 1789 ideas into practice - focus on equality, no class privilege.
  • Managed frequent elections well.

What was making the Directory lose popularity:

  • Directors rigging votes.
  • Tax - although sensible, irritated the property owners who were largely taxed.
  • During the military advance in Italy, French troops captured Rome, angering Roman Catholics in France.
  • Conscription and loans to pay for war.

Napoleon:

  • Born 1769.
  • Died 1821.
  • First reign: 1804-1814; second reign: March-June 1815.
  • First wife: Josephine Bonaparte (1796-1810); second wife: Marie Louise of Austria (1810-1821).

Early life:

  • Born in Corsica, an island near Italy that belonged to France.
  • Went to military acadamy, trained as a soldier.
  • First joined the military 1793 and quickly stood out.
  • Most of the original senior aristocratic officers were now revolution targets, meaning there was a lot more opportunity for middle ranking soldiers to shine.
  • Initially openly supported Robespierre and the Jacobuins, but carefully distanced himself. Supported the Directory. Seemed to know which way the wind was blowing.
  • His support for the Directory saw him rewarded in 1795 as in command of the army of the interior while in his twenties.
  • 1796- put in command of the French army in northern Italy.
    • 30,000 hungry, underpaid, poorly equipped, demoralised soldiers,
    • Achieved astonishing success.
    • Defeated Austrian armies, leaving him in control of the wealthiest part of Italy.
    • Imposed peace treaty on Austria 1798, formally giving France most of northern Italy.
  • Ran two newspapers to control the message publicised about him.
  • 1798- Sent on a campaign to Egypt. Main reason was to try and weaken British influence in the Mediterranean, but the government also wanted him to leave France as his popularity made him a threat. This backfired - although defeated in Egypt, Napoleon returned still a national hero.
  • Appointed in charge of all troops in Paris.
  • Met with Sieyes- both secretly planned to use the other to their own advantage.

Abbe Emmanuel Joseph Sieyes:

  • Priest and politician.
  • Disliked 1795 Constitution and, at first, refused to serve in the Directory. He was so popular, though, that he was pressured into becoming a director. He believed that the government was inefficient and self-serving.

The Consuls:

  • Sieyes: Had been in First Estate, supported revolution, anti-directory but was a director.
  • Roger Ducos: Member of a moderate political party, part of the National Convention 1792-3, voted for execution of Louis XVI, member of Council of 500, then one of the directors.

1799 Constitution:

  • 10 November 1799.
  • The Three Consuls swore an oath of allegiance to the Republic.

  • Set to work on writing up their own new constitution. Lots of bickering:


    • Sieyes wanted Napoleon to be figurehead, Napoleon wanted to be leader.
    • Sieyes wanted them to have an equal vote and Napoleon wanted to have the final say and the others to have the right to express only.
    • Napoleon bullied Sieyes and Ducos into agreeing that he would be First Consul.

  • Allowed universal suffrage in theory, practically not very democratic.

  • Senate to guard the constitution but Napoleon could change it at will.
  • Referendum to out through the new constitution in 1800.
    • Official results say 3,011,007 voted yes, 1,562 voted no, and a large portion abstained.
    • Known fact that local officials regularly sent in false results to please Napoleon.

Napoleon's key aims:

  • Become and remain the ruler of France.
  • End the chaos of the revolutionary years.
  • Provide effective government - maintaining revolutionary gains while keeping law and order.

Senators:

  • Appointed for life.
  • Substantial salary.
  • Rewarded with land and money.
  • Had significant prestige.
  • Membership of the Senate originally at 80, by 1814 increased to 140.
  • Most of the additional members were chosen personally by Napoleon.
  • Became a large consultative body anxious to please Napoleon.

Assassination attempt #1:

  • December 1800 a group of royalists put a bomb in a barrel, barrel in a cart, to explode as he rode past.
  • Napoleon unharmed.
  • Made the Senate very aware of the fragility of a regime depending on one man.
  • Led the Senate to offer Napoleon consulship for life, with the right to choose his successor.
  • Napoleon accepted - approved by 1802 referendum.

The new government:

  • Tribunate and Legislature hardly consulted.
  • Tribunate abolished 1801.
  • Legislature only survived by doing exactly what Napoleon wanted.
  • Government was conducted through the Senate and Council of State, both firmly under Napoleon's personal control.

Consulate Government:

  • Napoleon as first consul.
  • Two other consuls.
  • Senate.
  • Council of State - drafted bills.
  • Tribunate - debated the bills but couldn't vote on them.
  • Legislature - couldn't discuss the bills but voted on them after reading the Tribunate's debates.

Napoleons France: 1799-1804:

  • Set up new ministries.
  • All ministers reported directly to Napoleon.
  • Council of State - made up of all the main ministers.
  • Bank of France set up - vital step towards solving financial crisis.
  • Monitored price of bread carefully. Despite harvest failings in 1800, food prices were capped.
  • Intendants replaced with prefects. Appointed by Napoleon based on merit and sent to areas they had no personal connection to.

Censorship and propaganda:

  • Until 1810 - reports on all books, plays, lectures and posters that appeared in Paris were sent, often daily, to Napoleon.
  • Publishers required to forward two copies of every book, prior to publication, to the police.
  • 1810 - system of regular censors.
    • Over half the printing presses in Paris were shut down.
    • Publishers forced to get a license and swear loyalty to the government.

Military positions:

  • Napoleon personally reviewed all senior military appointments, making sure they were filled by those who had proven undeniable loyalty to him.
  • Personally ensured soldiers were paid and fed.
  • Tried to limit consumption.
  • Consistent message that the war with Austra and Britain was not his fault.

Consul to Emperor:
“By the time he became emperor, and had further successful military victories and conquests abroad, Napoleon had become increasingly authoritarian. Any legislative bodies were marginalised, censorship was tightened, and the press became highly enthusiastic about Napoleon and his policies. There was no more popular sovereignty – as he stated on one occasion: “I am the representative of the people”. There was little or no serious opposition to his rule in France, however. He took great care to ensure that law and order were maintained, and that the country retained what the French people saw were the benefits of the revolution. He seems to have modelled himself on the ‘enlightened despots’ of the Ancien Regimes in Europe, where autocratic leaders ruled wisely.” (textbook p. 39)

Overview:

  • 1802: Napoleon declared consul for life.
    • 1802: Legion of Honour introduced. A high-stars order, membership of which ought to bind powerful men to his regime through granting them titles and rewards.
    • By 1803 Napoleon was behaving like a king. He dressed like one, held a royal-style court. State ceremonies multiplied, dress was elaborate.
    • Hints and rumours that a nobility was about to be re-established.

Another attempted murder:

  • Duke of Enghien - member of the Bourbon family, distant cousin of Louis XVI.
  • Alleged to be involved in a plot to murder Napoleon to take over.
  • Kidnapped on Napoleon's orders while on neutral territory.
  • 20th March 1804 - executed by firing squad.

1804:

  • Made Napoleon consider what would happen when he died.
  • Plebiscite - 3,572,329 yes, 2,569 no.
    • Not wanting to risk the army voting no, the government added in about 500,000 yes notes on their behalf, and they were not actually polled.
  • Crowned at Notre Dame Cathedral, 2nd December 1804. Crowned himself and then his wife, Josephine.