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CONFLICT AT HOME AND ABROAD 1960-75 - Coggle Diagram
CONFLICT AT HOME AND ABROAD 1960-75
DOMESTIC POLICIES UNDER KENNEDY, JOHNSON AND NIXON
KENNEDY AND THE NEW FRONTIER
the 1960 election:
between Kennedy and Nixon. JFK had slim majority due to:
was catholic so gained support from this demographic.
youthful image with a glamorous wife.
desire for change after Eisenhower's administration - which Nixon had been VP for.
JFK promised a 'new frontier' - although he was vague about what this was.
communism seemed greater than ever with launch of USSR satellite (Sputnik) in 1957 - JFK promised he would beat communism.
JFK stated his support for MLK and used his influence to obtain his release from prison in 1960 which ensured African-American support.
JFK appeared the better candidate in the TV debate.
the 'new frontier':
initially simply a slogan used to inspire and unite the young americans behind him.
soon became a programme of reform and change for the us.
JFK wanted to make america a fairer and better place.
he made major changes to central govt to ensure that this programme was carried out.
this included the
'Brains Trust'
who were young experts form us unis who Kennedy hoped would come up with new ideas for tackling the problems of the usa.
CIVIL RIGHTS:
before 1963 JFK was hesitant as he didnt want to alienate conservative southerners who he needed for votes to pass other measures.
JFK appointed Thurgood Marshall, who was a leading civil rights activist, as one of five federal judge appointments.
the state of Louisiana refused to fund schools that were not segregated so JFK threatened legal action.
in Oct 1962, he sent in 23,000 govt troops to ensure James Meridith, a black student, could attend the University of Mississippi.
in 1963, he introduced a Civil Rights Bill to Congress which aimed to give African Americans equality in housing and education - but this was defeated in Congress.
THE ECONOMY:
general tax cut introduced as more spending would mean more goods sold.
public works that cost $900,000,000.
fed govt would begin a new series of projects, such as new roads and public buildings.
grants given to high-tech companies to invest in equipment to train workers.
spending on defence and space technology increased also - which secured or created jobs.
limited prices and wages to ensure inflation did not spiral out of control.
still unemployment in traditional industries such as coal, iron and steel - with unemployment twice as high among African Americans.
SOCIAL REFORM:
JFK was active in this area.
he increased minimum wage from $1.00 to $1.25 an hour.
Manpower and Training Act was passed which provided retraining for the for the long-term unemployed.
The Area Redevelopment Act allowed the fed govt to give loans and grants to states with long-term unemployment.
The Housing Act provided cheap loans for the redevelopment of inner cities.
The Social Security Act gave greater financial help to the elderly and unemployed.
Social security benefits were extended to each child whose father was unemployed.
limitations:
JFK had planned to start medicare but was thrown out by congress.
slum clearance created housing shortages in inner-city areas.
minimum wage only helped those who already had jobs.
poorest people could not afford to pay back housing loans.
OPPOSITION TO THE NEW FRONTIER:
JFK seemed to be in a powerful position with his party having a majority in both houses.
little was actually achieved during his 1,000 days in office.
he was more focused on foreign policy and lacked a clear and coherent programme with his reform proposals being blocked by conservatives.
greatest opposition came from Southern congress members - even democrats - who disliked his commitment to civil rights.
they felt that equal votes of african americans would cost them the votes of some white people in the south.
some opposed further extension of fed govt.
many still believed in values of 'rugged individualism'.
JOHNSON AND THE GREAT SOCIETY
the great society:
included economic and social reforms as well as civil rights legislation.
CIVIL RIGHTS:
Civil Rights Act of 1964 banned discrimination in public places, in federally assisted programmes and in employment.
Voting Rights act of 1965 appointed agents to ensure voting procedures were carried out properly.
1967 - SC ruled all laws banning mixed race marriages were to be removed.
ECONOMIC REFORM:
cut taxes to give consumers more money to spend which helped business grow and to create more jobs.
the Office of Economic Opportunity set up schemes to help poor people in inner cities - this incl funding for new education and community projects.
loans were provided for local schemes and made the basis of Johnsons Programme for Poverty.
manufacturers and shops had to label goods clearly and consumers had the right to return and exchange faulty goods.
$1.5mill was spent on the Head Start Programme so that teachers could provide additional education for very young, poor children.
SOCIAL REFORM:
Medical Care Act provided Medicare for the old and Medicaid for the poor as an attempt to ensure all americans had equal access to healthcare.
Elementary and Secondary Education Act provided major federal support for state education - fed money was provided to ensure standards of education across states was equal.
Model Cities Act continued JFK's policy of urban renewal - the act provided fed funds for slum clearance and the provision of better services.
minimum wage was increased from $1.25 to $1.40 an hour.
opposition to the great society:
opposition was due distorted because of attitudes to US involvement in the Vietnam War.
Republicans accused him of undermining 'rugged individualism' with overspending on welfare programmes and rapid increases in health spending especially.
spending was diverted from great society into paying for the war.
outbreak of violence in cities in late 1960s is often seen as evidence that great society was a failure.
the programme raised expectations but was unable to deliver.
millions did benefit though from education and health care programmes.
25mill were given access to healthcare for the first time.
the number of African Americans living below the poverty line fell by 50%.
Johnson greatly extended the role of fed govt significantly and intervened to make a difference particularly in the reduction of poverty.
NIXON AND WATERGATE
the 1968 election:
Nixon v. Humphrey.
Nixon won 302 of the ECVs.
he appealed to 'Middle America' by championing those concerned by the Great Society and black inner-city riots.
he promised 'peace with honour' in Vietnam.
Humphrey had campaigned to continue the Vietnam War and the Great Society.
the Democrat Convention highlighted the divisions within the party with clashes between the police and left-wing protesters outside.
domestic achievments:
limited because he was more interested in foreign policy.
Democrats controlled congress which made it difficult to pass legislation.
he showed little interest in civil rights.
although there was some progress as by 1971 there were 13 black congress members and 81 black mayors.
he introduced the Family Assistance Plan which attempted to replace a range of benefits introduced in the Great Society programme but congress rejected this.
there was greater spending on the social programmes introduced by the Great Society.
ECONOMIC ACHIEVEMENTS:
Nixon faced a rise in prices.
he tried to reduce this by strict control of borrowing.
this didnt work though so had to introduce a 90-day wages and price freeze as well as a reduction in income tax in 1971.
he hoped to encourage the purchase of consumer goods.
followed by the introduction of a Pay Board which kept wages increases down to 5.5%
a Price Commission limited price increases to 2.5% and devalued the dollar which led to a temporary boom in the economy.
THE 1972 ELECTION:
Nixon won with the greatest electoral triumph achieved by a Republican candidate against Democrat George McGovern.
there was a temporary boom in the economy and the Vietnam War seemed to be coming to an end.
he also had significant foreign policy achievements incl visits to China and the USSR.
the watergate scandal
EVENTS:
1972: the Committee to Re-Elect the President (CREEP) was set up to ensure Nixon's re-election.
later that year 5 members of this group were arrested for breaking into the Democrat offices to plant bugging devices.
the CREEP fund was controlled by the White House.
Nixon strongly denied all involvement and went on to win the election.
1973: the burglars went on trial and were convicted. One of the 5 claimed in court there had been a White House cover-up.
the investigation of the Senate Committee to investigate the scandal was televised and it became increasingly clear that White House officials had been involved.
one of the officials accused, claimed the cover-up had been directed by Nixon.
Nixon at first refused to hand over his taped conversations and when he did there were only 7 out of 9 and they had clearly been edited.
they showed he had been involved and had repeatedly lied.
EFFECTS OF THE SCANDAL:
1974: congress decided to impeach Nixon.
a month later, Nixon announced his resignation to avoid impeachment.
his successor, Ford, pardoned Nixon for any criminal acts he had taken part in.
31 of Nixon's advisors served prison terms for Watergate-related offences.
REDUCTION OF EXECUTIVE POWERS:
Election Campaign Act 1974 - set limits on election contributions to prevent corruption.
War Powers Act 1973 - required the president to consult congress before sending American troops into combat.
Privacy Act 1974 - allowed citizens to have access to any files the govt may have had on them.
Congressional Budget Act 1974 - the president could not use govt money for their own purposes.
THE USA AND INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1960-75
THE USA AND THE COLD WAR 1960-75
the berlin wall crisis 1961:
cold war tension had been increased in 1958 due to Krushchev's 'Berlin Ultimatum'.
1961: Krushchev ordered the construction of a wall to separate East Germany and Berlin from West Berlin.
after the Bay of Pigs fiasco he believed he could bully Kennedy.
tensions were high and there was a stand off between tanks on Oct 27+28 but after 18 hours the US tanks pulled back.
SIGNIFICANCE:
in some ways it brought stability to Germany and Berlin as the two different sides had been sealed off.
cold war tension increased as both countries resumed nuclear testing.
soviet propaganda claimed it was a success as the US had been unable to prevent its construction.
US writing portrayed it as a success as the USSR had to wall its people in.
the cuban missile crisis 1962
CAUSES:
Castro had ejected all US business and investment from Cuba after coming into power so the US refused to buy Cuba's biggest export - sugar.
the USSR filled this whole and bought their sugar.
the Bay of Pigs fiasco was humiliating for the USA.
it drew Cuba closer to the soviets and in 1961 Castro announced his conversion to communism.
Krushchev was concerned by US missile bases in Italy and Turkey so established Soviet bases in Cuba to redress the balance.
these posed a serious threat ot US security.
THE OCTOBER CRISIS:
13 days.
difference of opinions from Kennedy's advisors as to whether to take an aggressive or peaceful response to the Cuban missile bases.
Naval blockade implemented by US around Cuba.
Krushchev informed Kennedy that Soviet ships would force their way through.
Soviet ships approached the blockade line but then retreated and Krushchev issued a statement insisting he would use nuclear weapons in the event of a war.
there was an agreement that the missiles would be removed from Cuba if the US removed their missiles from Turkey - although they did this in secret.
RESULTS:
Kennedy seemed to have won war of words and perception was that Krushchev had backed down.
American's felt like they had some sort of victory which eld to over-confidence in Vietnam.
USSR were determined not to back down again and worked hard to ensure nuclear parity by the end of the decade.
relief that crisis was over and a reduction in tension.
hotline telephone established between White House and Kremlin in Moscow.
Partial Test Ban Treaty signed in 1963 where both countries agreed to stop testing nuclear weapons in the atmosphere.
the usa and china:
relations with china had deteriorated since the chinese civil war.
they worsened during the korean war.
after this, the us had put a trade embargo on china and kept it out of the un.
one of nixons greatest achievements was improving these relations.
REASONS FOR IMPROVED RELATIONS:
1971: the us lifted its 21 year trade embargo with china.
relations between china and the ussr had worsened - particularly after china had denounced the 1968 soviet invasion of czechoslovakia.
nixon saw an opportunity to exploit this split and him and kissinger wanted to use china to counter soviet power and force the ussr into detente.
nixon also hoped closer relations with china might help bring an end to the vietnam war as the chinese were close allies of the north vietnamese.
mao believed china needed detente and the potential stimulus to chinese trade and industry.
mao was convinced nixon would withdraw us troops from asia which made the us less of a threat than the soviets.
PING-PONG DIPLOMACY:
1971: World Table Tennis Championship held in Japan. Chinese ping-pong team formally invited the us team to play in their country on an all expenses paid trip.
they were among the first group of us citizens permitted to visit china since 1949.
soon after, the us govt lifted the trade embargo on china.
eventually a meeting was facilitate between mao and nixon.
a series of other events were triggered incl the restoration of china's legitimate rights in the un by an overwhelming majority vote at the end of 1971 and the establishment of diplomatic relations between china and other countries.
detente
REASONS FOR DETENTE:
threat of nuclear war during cuban missile crisis concerned countries - hotline between white house and kremlin improved speed of communications.
test ban treaty showed a willingness to look at the issue of nuclear development.
both powers were keen on arms limitation talks to reduce their defence spending.
the recognition of us govt that containment had to be achieved by detente rather than continuous and excessive power.
the usa's involvement in vietnam had not gone well and by 1968, the us was seeking to end the war.
the alliance between the us and china concerned the ussr.
SALT 1:
strategic arms limitation treaty - first one signed in 1972.
talks held in helsinki and vienna over 3 years produced SALT 1.
it imposed limits on the nuclear capability of the country.
it was significant as it was the first agreement between the powers that successfully limited the number of nuclear weapons held.
THE HELSINKI AGREEMENTS 1975:
made by us, ussr and 33 other countries.
the west recognised current national boundaries in E. Europe and the ussr accpeted the existence of west germany - who renounced their claim to be the sole legitimate german state.
each agreed to respect human rights and basic freedoms such as thought, speech, religion and freedom from unfair arrest.
a call for closer economic, scientific and cultural links which would lead to closer political agreement.
THE CONFLICT IN VIETNAM
reasons for us involvement:
initially involved as part of containment and fear of domino theory.
during 1956 elections us propped up south vietnam to prevent reunification with communist controlled north.
leader of south vietnam, Diem, was corrupt and unpopular with a govt propped up by the usa.
1959: Ho Chi Minh - leader of north - issued orders to begin a terror campaign against the south.
1963: Diem was overthrown and replaced with a series of short-lived and weak govts.
under Kennedy the Strategic Hamlet policy was used to try to reduce communist influence - it didnt work and was incredibly unpopular.
1964: Johnsons wanted more direct military involvement.
1964: a us destroyer was fired at by N. Vietnamese patrol boats. 2 days later there was a second alleged act.
whilst evidence later showed the 2nd act didnt happen, Johnson was able to use them to convince congress to support greater us involvement.
the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution gave Johnson the power to take any military measures he thought necessary to defend S. Vietnam.
at this point, 85% of people supported this policy.
reasons for us defeat
THE STRENGTHS OF THE COMMUNISTS:
a strong cause behind their fighting - communism and the reunification of vietnam gave them purpose to not surrender.
the vietcong used tactics the us army were not used to or prepared for - these were also far more suited to the jungle terrain of S. Vietnam than the us methods also.
deep tunnels were dug by the vietcong as air raid shelters and more discreet routes o fmovement.
they were self-contained and booby trapped so the us forces could not infiltrate them.
many who lived in the south supported the north and the causes they were fighting for.
additionally, many felt isolated by the us tactics and brutality - this support made the guerrilla tactics even more effective.
the north and vietcong were also supplied with rockets, tanks and fighter planes by the USSR and China.
WEAKNESSES OF THE USA:
many troops were young - with an average age of 19 - , inexperienced and unable to cope with the guerrilla warfare.
this led to a fall in morale and some excessively brutal behaviour.
the failure to achieve quick victory, high casualty rate - total of 58,000 deaths, and widespread reporting of the horrific tactics used meant there was opposition to the war at home also which undermined the war effort.
the army failed to develop an effective response to guerrilla tactics.
us tactics, especially search and destroy and chemical warfare, further turned the vietnamese against the us.
the TET OFFENSIVE had disastrous effect on public opinion in the usa - this saw the N.Vietnamese army launch an attack on over 100 cities and towns in S. Vietnam which proved that the vietcong could strike at the heart of the american-held territory.
brought a further loss of morale and convinced many that the war was unwinnable.
US METHODS OF WARFARE IN VIETNAM:
'Operation Rolling Thunder' - the us bombing campaign of N. Vietnam that lasted from 1965-68 with the intention of destroying Vietcong supply routes to the south. The US also used chemical warfare such as napalm and defoliants like 'agent orange' to destroy the Vietcong's jungle cover.
'Search and Destroy' - used helicopters to descend on villages suspected of assisting Vietcong forces and then destroying them. Called 'Zippo' raids after the name of the lighters used to start the fires of the thatched houses.
impact of the mass media on the war in vietnam:
first tv war.
tv was most important source of news for american public by 1960s.
by 1967, 90% of evening news was devoted to the war.
american tv networks were allowed to move freely and operate as they wished in vietnam.
every viewer could witness every mistake and defeat.
the development of colour tv also worsened the reality and bloody nature of what was being shown.
THE TET OFFENSIVE AND AFTER:
after this event, tv coverage became less supportive of the war.
the attack was betrayed as a brutal defeat for the us and the media not the military confirmed the growing perception that the us was unable to win.
the My Lai massacre and public street execution of a vietcong suspect were shown live and as well as other incidents, americans were shocked.
us withdrawal
as early as 1969, the us were moving towards a policy of withdrawal from vietnam, which was achieved 4 years later.
REASONS FOR WITHDRAWAL:
after the tet offensive, it seemed obvious that the us woudl not be victorious.
in 1968 the 'wise men' - senior advisors - advocated a retreat.
nixon was elected president on the promise of withdrawal and was aware of the strong protests against the war.
the media turned against the war after the tet offensive and protests were being held in every major city.
involvement was incredibly expensive.
by 1968 it had cost the us taxpayer $26.5bn and was a main cause of the govts £25bn budget deficit and rising inflation.
PLAN FOR WITHDRAWAL:
nixon unveiled this in 1969.
known as VIETNAMISATION.
idea that vietnamese soldiers would be trained and equipped to take the place of us troops as they were gradually withdrawn.
this didnt work as south vietnamese troops were no match for the communist forces.
peace talks had begun in1968 but made no real progress until nixon's visit to china in 1972.
1973: a peace treaty was signed that agreed the us would withdraw its troops and the vietcong was allowed to hold onto all captured areas of S. Vietnam.
within 2 years, the communists had defeated the south and vietname was reunited.
EFFECTS OF THE WAR:
around $30bn spent per year on the war which undermined Johnson's spending on the great society.
made Johnson incredibly unpopular.
defeat pushed Nixon into considering different diplomatic strategies that affected the cold war - incl his decision to visit china and development of detente with russia to divide a wedge between the two differing supporters of the vietcong.
nixon doctrine emerged which stated that the us expected its allies to take care of their own military defence - the us had failed and didnt want to be seen to fail again.
50,000 american deaths and a further 300,000 wounded.
IDEOLOGICAL, SOCIAL, REGIONAL AND ETHNIC DIVISIONS
PROGRESS IN CIVIL RIGHTS UNDER MLK
progress in the early 1960s:
profile of civil rights movement had been raised by Little Rock, sit-ins and the freedom riders.
by 1961, sit-ins in N. Carolina to protest against an all white cafe, that had the support of MLK, had attracter over 70,000 participants.
direct action led activists to challenge the deep-rooted racism in the south even further in the 'freedom rides'.
in 1960, the SC ruled al bus stations and terminals that served interstate travellers should be integrated and CORE tested this decision with the freedom rides.
late 1961 saw the Interstate Commerce Commission issue a regulation that ended racial segregation in bus terminals.
MLK's leadership:
by 1963 he'd become the leading figure in the civil rights movement.
he wanted African Americans to help themselves through peaceful methods like marches and boycotts to avoid the alienation of white americans unnecassarily.
PEACE MARCHES:
Student Non-Violent Co-ordinating Committee mobilised students in Georgia to protest against segregation.
MLK used his attendance and arrests at marches to gain attention.
arrests such as his put a spotlight on the civil rights cause, providing national and international publicity.
a march in Birmingham, Alabama in 1963 saw MLK lead a march where he knew the racist police chief O'Connor would act violently.
TV then witnessed the violent tactics used by the police and this gave MLK the publicity he wanted that showed the violence of the authorities in the face of peaceful demonstrations.
Kennedy became involved at this stage and agreed desegregation would take place within 90 days.
a march in Washington was organised after the events of Birmingham when coverage was great, the causes of this march ended up spreading of the entire breadth of the civil rights movement.
this was where the famous 'I have a dream...' speech was made.
Kennedy then met with MLK and other leaders to discuss civil rights legislation and show his commitment to the cause after.
1964: Johnson pushed Kennedy's Civil Rights Bill through congress and it became law.
this did not guarantee African Americans the right to vote though.
1965: the Voting Rights Act was passed by Johnson after the events of 'Bloody Sunday' - another peaceful protest led by King that the authorities responded violently to.
MALCOLM X AND BLACK POWER
the nation of islam:
openly sought separatism.
had never accepted the ideas of MLK.
est. 1930.
claimed to provide African Americans and alternative to the white man's christian religon, to persuade members to live a religious life, to increase black self-esteem, to keep black and white americans separate and to encourage african americans to improve their economic situation.
Malcolm X:
most famous member of Nation of Islam.
increased membership to 100,000 in years 1952-64.
helped set up educational and social programmes aimed at black youths in ghettos.
critical of MLK and other leaders of civil rights movement and their methods.
he criticised the march on Washington adn felt that violence could be justified, not only for self-defence but also as a means to secure a separate black nation.
in the latter year of his life his opinion changed after a visit to Mecca, he believed Islam could be a means by which racial problems could be overcome.
he still urged African Americans to defend themselves if necessary though.
ACHIEVEMENTS:
support for violence led to many enemies and critics and his advocacy of separatism was unrealistic and unattainable.
was a realistic model for ghetto African Americans who could relate to him more than to MLK.
raised the self-esteem of African Americans more than anyone else involved in the movement.
ideas became the foundation to movements like BLACK POWER and the BLACK PANTHERS.
black riots:
1964-66 saw around 300 riots in black city ghettos of the North, Midwest and West.
stemmed from frustration over high rates of unemployment, continuing discrimination and poverty.
in 1965, a riot in LA left 34 dead and caused $40mill of damage.
it took fed troops and national guardsmen to restore order.
black ghettos in cities like Chicago became no-go areas for white Americans.
black power:
emergence of this group was encouraged by similar frustration to riots.
1966: SNCC had moved away from King and towards Black Power.
came to be a slogan that covered a wide range of activities in the late 1960s aimed to increase the power of black Americans in American life.
Stokely Carmichael was a leading figure who, with others, wanted followers to take pride in their heritage.
Carmichael was criticised due to his aggressive attitude and denounced involvement in Vietnam.
gained great publicity in 1968 Mexico Olympics as some black American athletes showed their support.
the black panthers:
founded in California in 1966 by Newton and Seale.
both founders heavily influenced by Malcolm X.
had a ten-point programme which included an end to police brutality as well as decent housing, education and full employment for African Americans.
they were prepared to use revolutionary means to achieve this programme.
they set up practical community action programmes which won them support among ghetto African Americans - incl establishing healthcare clinics and providing childcare for working mothers.
additionally, they helped leave a legacy of greater awareness of black culture and history which led to more African American studies in educational institutions.
the Panthers wore uniforms and were prepared to use weapons, training members in their use.
rejected the dominant white culture.
by end of 1968 they had 5,000 members.
internal divisions and confrontations with the police saw support diminish.
the FBI constantly targeted them and by 1982 the party was disbanded.
THE STUDENT MOVEMENT
reasons for student protest:
many wanted a greater say in their own education - incl running unis and bringing an end to college rules and restrictions and rules imposed upon them. some student societies tried to expose racism within their own colleges.
for many, civil rights movement had been first experience of protest and MLKs methods proved inspirational.
student protests were prevalent across the world by the 60s.
opposition to the Vietnam War united the student movement.
pop music was an expression of the emerging youth culture, and an expression of protest against important issues with inspiration from a number of Bob Dylan songs.
activities of the student movement
THE SDS:
STUDENTS FOR A DEMOCRATIC SOCIETY.
set up in 1959 to give students a greater say in how courses and universities were run.
denounced the cold war and adopted a position of 'anti-anti communism', demanding controlled disarmament to avoid nuclear war.
also wanted to help poor and disadvantaged.
supported increased after Johnson's announcement of bombing raids on N. Vietnam in 1965 and again in 1966 after Johnson abolished student draft deferments.
achieved national prominence in 1964 after organisation of a number of sit-ins.
OPPOSITION TO THE WAR IN VIETNAM:
united the student movement.
opposition grew to increasing us death toll and tactics employed by the us.
additionally, a disproportionate number of African American students were called up to fight.
anti-war protests reached their peak 1968-70.
at these demonstrations students burned their draft cards and the us flag which led to angry clashes with the police.
in Kent State Uni in 1970, students were tear gassed and shot at leading to the deaths of 4 people and 11 more injured.
the press were horrified and 400 colleges had to close as a result of strike action from students in protest to this.
CIVIL RIGHTS:
many were involved in SNCC and CORE and were ready to use this experience to campaign for themselves.
1964: student societies organised rallies and marches to support the civil rights campaign.
THE HIPPIE MOVEMENT:
some young people decided to 'drop out' of society.
they developed an 'alternative' lifestyle as their form of protest.
called flower children often.
San Fransisco became the hippie capital of america.
their behaviour and especially their use of drugs often led them to have clashes with the police.
influenced by groups like The Grateful Dead and The Doors.
achievements:
brought about social, political and cultural change.
there were reflections of the change to youth culture profoundly in fashion.
whilst the student protests most likely helped shift govt policy, they did not end the war in vietnam.
the protests did however, influence johnsons decision not to run for a second term.
provided greater publicity for racism still prevalent in us society.
support of both white and black students showed that younger generation were not willing to tolerate discrimination and segregation anymore.
THE WOMEN'S MOVEMENT
emergence
ELEANOR ROOSEVELT:
1960: set up commission to investigate the status of women at work.
report was published in 1963 and highlighted women's second class status in employment.
women earned 50-60% of the wages of men who did the same job.
BETTY FRIEDAN:
1963: she wrote
The Feminine Mystique
.
expressed the thoughts of many - that there was more to life than being a housewife and a mother.
she called for women to reject this stereotype and for progress in female employment opportunities.
1966: set up NOW.
NOW:
set up to attack obvious examples of discrimination.
by early 70s had 40,000 members and had organised demonstrations in a number of american cities.
challenged discrimination in courts and between 1966-71 secured $30mill in back pay owed to women who had not been paid wages equal to men.
women's liberation movement:
name given to women with more radical aims than NOW.
also known as feminists and were more active in challenging discrimination.
extreme feminists wanted all signs of male supremacy to be removed incl male control of employment, politics and the media.
some refused to wear makeup and burnt their bras to generate attention.
extreme actions and protests brought the wrong sort of publicity and actions like burning bras made it difficult for men and other women to take the whole issue seriously.
some saw them as a distraction from key issues of equal pay and better job opportunities.
campaign to legalise abortion:
feminists challenged the illegality of abortion arguing it was against their human rights.
Roe v. Wade
lasted from 1970-73 saw and the right to abortion granted.
achievements:
1963 Equal Pay Act - required wages to be the same -although didnt address discrimination in seeking jobs in the first place.
1972 Educational Amendment Act outlawed sex discrimination in education, so girls could follow the exact same curriculum as boys to in turn give them greater career opportunities.
1972 - SC ruled that US constitution did give both genders equal rights.
the two-career family began to replace the traditional stereotype.
Equal Rights Amendment Act was passed by congress but not ratified by states.
movement did not attract many middle-class women.
THE USA BY 1975
THE MAKING OF A SUPERPOWER
the impact of watergate:
the power of the president had grown significantly over years making checks and balances form congress and SC difficult.
after watergate, there was a new determination to enforce limits on presidents ability.
the scandal left the position of the presidency weakened by 1975.
many americans became disillusioned with their system of govt and no longer had confidence in or respect for their politicans and govt.
the economy:
after WWII a prolonged boom had occurred and in 1970s, US was still the most advanced economy in world.
by 70s the boom was over though.
Ford inherited high inflation and 'stagnation; from Nixon.
Ford also inherited an energy crisis and as oil prices rocketed the NY stock exchange plumetted.
position in world affairs:
one of two superpowers.
had achieved role as so-called champion of democracy against spread of communism.
direct confrontation of cuban missile crisis had given new approach of detente which culminated in the Helsinki Agreements.
failure of Vietnam meant us would avoid action similar in the future.
usa was becoming increasingly involved in events of middle east.
social cohesion
AFRICAN AMERICANS:
had made great gains in 60s with Civil Rights and Voting Acts.
politically there was progress for representation by 1970s.
socially, there were improvements as the proportion of black families earning over $10,000 a year had increased to 31% by beginning of 1970s.
however, half black teenagers dropped out of high school before graduation.
NATIVE AMERICAN INDIANS:
still by far the worst off.
many lived on reservations.
unemployment was 10 times higher than any other americans.
on average lived 20 years less.
suicide rate was 100 time higher than for white people.
govt agreed to look into their grievances eventually.
WOMEN:
rights had changed dramatically since early 1960s.
changes were stimulated by new attitudes to work, sex, family and personal freedom.
over 2/3 of female college students rejected stereotype of housewife.
most women now expected to work for most of their lives.
women only received 73% of the salaries paid to professional men though and still dominated low-paid jobs.
66% of adults classified as poor were female.
by 1975, optimism of 1960s had given way to the cynicism of Nixon and Watergate. They were certainly a superpower but with a divided society.