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Digestive and Urinary system -Jocelyn Gomez 5/4/2023 period 1 A &…
Digestive and Urinary system
-Jocelyn Gomez
5/4/2023
period 1
A & P
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
the digestive system is made up of the gastrointestinal (GI) tract and the liver, pancreases, and gallbladder
GI tract = series of hollow organs that are connected to each other from mouth to anus
GI tract organs
mouth
esophagus
stomach
small intestine
large intestine
anus
the digestive system is constructed to do its jobs of turning food into the nutrients and energy the body needs to survive
digestion is important because the body needs nurirents from the food that is eaten and the liquids that you drink in order to stay healthy and functioning properly
nutrients include, carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, minerals and water
the digestive system breaks down and absorbs nutrients from the food and liquids you consume to use for important things like energy, growth and repairing cells
made of the digestive tract and other organs that help the body break down and absorb food
starts at the mouth and goes through the eoesophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine and anus.
The digestive system breaks down food into nutrients such as carbohydrates, fats and proteins.
MAJOR FUNCTIONS OF THE URINARY SYSTEM
urinary system produces, stores and excretes urine via filtration mechanism in which potentially harmful molecules are removed from the body
has a crucial role in water homeostasis, electrolyte, acid base balance and red blood cell production
the human urinary tract is compromised of
two kidneys
two uteres
one bladder
two sphincters
one urethra
the passing of urine is known as micturition or urination
the urinary system is split into the upper and lower urinary tract
main urinary system function is to filter the blood of excess water, salts and waste products, temporarily store these within a reservoir and intermittently expel these products from the body
consist of 4 major organs
kindeys
urinary bladder
urethra
ureters
together these organs act to filter blood, remove waste products, create urine and transport urine out form the body
urinary system is also called the excretory system
group of organs in the body that filters out excess fluid and other substances from the bloodstream
purpose of the urinary system is to eliminated waste from the body, regulate blood pressure and blood volume, control levels of electrolytes and metabolites and regulate blood pH
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE URINARY TRACK
kidneys
perform the filtration functions of the urinary system and create urine
consist of three regions
inner renal medulla
consits of multiple pyramidal tissue masses called renal pyramids
tips of the pyramids called renal papillae point towards the renal pelvis
outer renal cortex
easy to identify the cortex, appears lighter in color compared to the rest of the kidney
granular due to the presence of nephrons (functional unit of the kidney)
renal pelvis
leads to the ureter on the outside of the kidney
pair of bean-shaped organs
filter blood and produce urine
remove waste. control the bodys fluid balance and keep the right levels of electrolytes
most complex and critical part of the urinary system
remove waste products and drugs from the body
balance body fluids
release hormones to regulate blood pressure
control production of red blood cells
ureters
urine passes from the renal tube through tubes called ureter and into the bladder
narrow tubes carry urine from the kidneys to the bladder
bladder
flexible and is used as storage
used as storage until urine is allowed to pass through the urethra and out of the body
urethra
duct that transmits urine from the bladder to the exterior of the body during urination
female and male urinary system are similar, differing only in the length of the urethra
MAJOR ORGANS OF THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM
mouth
beginning of the digestive tract
after you stater eating, you chew food into pieces that are more easily digested
saliva mixes with the food to begin to break it down into a form your body can absorb and use
when you swallow, your tounge passes the food into your throat and into your esophagus
esophagus
located in the throat near the trachea (windpipe)
esophagus receives food from the mouth when you swallow
epiglottis is a small flap that folds over your windpipe as you wallow to prevent you from choking
when food enters the windpipe
a series of muscular contractions within the esophagus called peristalsis deliver the food to the stomach
esophageal sphincter (ring like muscle at the bottom of the esophagus) has to relax to let the food in
the sphincter then contracts and prevents the contents of the stomach from flowing back into the esophagus
when it doesn't and these contents flowing back into the esophagus, you may experience acid reflux or heartburn
stomach
hollow organs (conmatiner)
holds food while it is being mixed with the stomach enzymes
enzymes continues the process of breaking down food into a usable form
cells in the lining of the stomach secrete a strong acid and powerful enzymes that are responsible for the breakdown process
when the contents of the stomach are processed enough, theyre released into the small intestine
smalle intestine
made of three segments
duodenum
first segment of the small intestine
responsible for the continuous breaking-down process
jejunum
lower in the intestine
mainly responsible for the absorptions of nutrients into the bloodstream
ileum
lower in the intestine
mainly responsible for the absorption of nutrients into the blood stream
22-foot long muscular tube that breaks down food using enzymes released by the pancreas and bile from the liver
peristalsis also works in this organ juices from the pancreas and liver
contents in the small intestine start out semi-solid and end in a liquid form after passing through the organ
water, bile, enzymes, and mucus contribute to the change in consistency
once nutrietns are absorbed and left-over food residue liquid has passed through the small intestine, it then moves on to the large intestine (colo)
pancrease
secrets digestive enzymes into the duodenum that break down the protein, fats and carbohydrates
pancreases also makes insulin, passing it directly into the bloodstream
insulin is the chief hormone in the body for metabolizing sugar
liver
bile from the liver secrete into the small intestine also is an important role in digestive fat and some vitamins
l.iver is the body's chemical "factory"
takes raw material absorbed by the intestine and makes all the various chemicals the body needs to function
liver also detoxifies potentially harmful chemicals
breaks down and secrete many drugs that can be toxic to the body
gallbladder
stores and concentrates bile from the liver
bile then releases into the duodenum in the small intestine to help absorb and digest fats
colon
responsible for processing waste so that emptying the bowl is easy and convenient
6-foot muscular tube that connects that the small intestine to the rectum
colon is made of
cecum
ascending (right) colon
transverse (across) colon
descending (left) colon
sigmoid colon (connects to the rectum)
stool, or waste left over from the digestive process is passed through the colon by means of peristalsis
first in a liquid state
ultimately in a solid form
as stool passes through the colon, waster is removed
stool is stored in the sigmoid colon until a "mass environment" empties it into the rectum once or twice a day
normally takes about 36 hours for stool to get through the colon
when the descending colon becomes full of stool, o feces, it empties its contents into the rectum to begin the process of elimination (a bowel movement)
rectum
straight 8-inch chamber that connects the colon and anus
rectums job is to receive stool from the colon
when gas or stool comes into the rectum, sensors end a message to the brain
brain decides if the rectal contents can be released or not
anus
last part of the digestive tract
2-inch long canal consisting of the pelvic floor muscles and the two anal sphincters (internal and external)
lining of the upper anus is able to detect rectal contents (lets you know whether the contents are liquid, gas or solid
anus us surrounded by sphincter muscles that are important in allowing control of stool
DIGESTIVE ENZYMES (INCLUDING NAMES AND THEIR FUNCTIONS)
what are enzymes
Digestive enzymes play a key role in breaking down the food you eat.
Your saliva has digestive enzymes
Some of the organs, including your pancreas, gallbladder, and liver, also resale enzymes
Cells on the surface of the intestines store enzymes aswell
Fruits, vegetables, and other foods have natural digestive enzymes (eating them can improves your digesstion
If your body doesn't make enough digestive enzymes, it can't digest food well (causing painful symptoms )
diarrhea
gas
Some digestive disorders prevent your body from making enough enzymes, such as:
lactose intolerance
small intestine doesn't make enough of the enzyme lactase
three kinds of lactose intolerance
primary = born with this gene
secondary = small intestine makes less lactase after an illness, injury, or surgery
Congenital or developmental = From the time you are born, your body doesn't make lactase. This is rare.
Exocrine pancreatic insufficiency (EPI)
This can happen when another condition damages the pancreas
common causes of EPI
Pancreatitis, or inflammation of the pancreas
Pancreatic cancer, which starts in the tissues of your pancreas
Cystic fibrosis, a genetic condition that damages the lungs, digestive system, and other organs
secreted (released) by the salivary glands and cells lining the stomach, pancreas, and small intestine
different types of enzymes
amylase
breaks down carbs into sugars
important for digesting carbohydrates
secreted by both the salivary glands and the pancreas.
measurement of amylase levels in the blood is sometimes used as an aid in diagnosing various pancreas or other digestive tract diseases
high levels of malayse in the blood can mean
blocked or injured duct of the pancreas
Acute pancreatitis (sudden inflammation of the pancreas)
pancreatic cancer
protease
works on proteins
Also called peptidases, proteolytic enzymes, or proteinases
break down proteins into amino acids.
play a role in numerous body processes
cell division
blood clotting
immune function
Proteases are produced in the stomach and pancreas. The main ones are
pepsin
secreted by the stomach to break down proteins into peptides, or smaller groupings of amino acids
amino acids are then either absorbed or broken down further in the small intestine
trypsin
forms when an enzyme secreted by the pancreas is activated by an enzyme in the small intestine
Trypsin activates additional pancreatic enzymes, such as carboxypeptidase and chymotrypsin, to help break down peptides.
chymotrypsin
breaks down peptides into free amino acids
can be absorbed by the intestinal wall.
carboxypeptidase A
Secreted by the pancreas
splits peptides into individual amino acids.
carboxypeptidase B
secreted by the pancreas
breaks down basic amino acids
lipase
handle fats
Lipase is responsible for the breakdown of fats into fatty acids and glycerol (simple sugar alcohol)
produced in small amounts by your mouth and stomach, and in larger amounts by your pancreas.
Maltese
small intestine releases maltase
responsible for breaking down maltose (malt sugar) into glucose (simple sugar)
During digestion, starch is partially transformed into maltose by amylases
The maltase enzyme changes maltose into glucose.
sucrase
secreted by the small intestine
breaks down sucrose into fructose and glucose
found along the intestinal villi
tiny hair-like structures that line the intestine and absorb nutrients into the bloodstream.
lactase
secreted by the small intestine
lactose (disaccharie)
Disorders of the digestive and urinary systems
cholecystitis
an inflammation of the gallbladder
cause / risk factors
inflammation
diet
common in females more than males
age
gallstones
symptoms
nausea
fever
bloating
chills
tender abdomen
treatment options
medication
fasting
antibiotics
cholecystectomy
gastroesophageal reflex disease (GERD)
chronic disease, occurs when esophageal sphincter relaxes allowing the contents of the stomach to move back into the esophagus
causes and risk factors
acid reflex
obesity
smoking
pregnancy
symptoms
chest pain
heartburn
dry cough
sure throat
treatment options
medication (prescribed)
medication (over the counter)
surgery
inflammatory bowel disease (IBD)
intestial disorders that cause inflammation of the digestive tract
cause and risk factors
abdominal pain
cramping
weightloss
symptoms
diarrehea
fever
fatigue
blood in urine
stomach pain
treatment options
medication
treatment
nutrition
peptic ulcers
sores that develop in the linning of the stomach
causes and risk factors
stress
smoking
alcohol abuse
bacterial infection
symptoms
heartburn
chest pain
nausea
vomiting
bloating
bloody stool
treatment options
medication
endoscopic surgery
lifestyle changes
Kidney stones
high levels of minerals and salts in the urine cause hard stones to form
causes and risk factors
blood in urine
pus in urine
nausea
fever
symptoms
pain while urinating
sharp pain on abdomen region
cramps
treatment options
medication
treatment
nutrition
procedures
urinary tract infection (UTI)
infection of any of the urinary system, kidneys, bladder, and urethra
cause and risk factors
cloudy urine
blood in urine
infection in kidneys
symptoms
pain / pressure
cloudy in urine
burning sensation while urinating
treatment options
antibiotics
medication
self care
treatment
bladder cancer
common type of cancer, develops in the urinary bladder
causes and risk factors
back pain
pain while urinating
blood in urine
frequent urination
symptoms
blood in urine
lower back pain
loss of appetite
wight loss
treatment options
medication
treatment
therapy
procedures
NEPHRON ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
nephron is the functional unit of the kidney
produces urine in the process of removing waste and excess substance from the blood
about 1,000,000 nephrons in each human kidney
nephron is used separate to water, ions and small molecules from the blood, filter out wastes and toxins, and return needed molecules to the blood
A nephron is the basic unit of structure in the kidney
nephron functions through ultrafiltration
Ultrafiltration occurs when blood pressure forces water and other small molecules through tiny gaps in capillary walls
substance, lacking the blood cells and large molecules in the bloodstream, is known as an ultrafiltrate
ultrafiltrate travels through the various loops of the nephron, where water and important molecules are removed, and into a collecting duct which drains into the bladder.
The glomerulus is the specialized configuration of capillaries within the nephron that make kidneys possible
structure of nephron
nepheon contains a loop of Henle (mammalian neohron)
the glomerulus is the net capillaries inside of the glomerular capsule (bowman's capsule)
each nephron consists of one main interlobular artery feeding a single renal tubule.
cells in each nephron are arranged so that the most concentrated cells are at the bottom of the nephron (cells at the top are less concentrated)
cells near the exit of the nephron are the most concentrated, therefore extract as much water as possible from the ultrafiltrate before it is sent to the bladder
long tubule, or extremely fine tube, about 30–55 mm (1.2–2.2 inches) long
At one end this tube is closed, expanded, and folded into a double-walled cuplike structure
This structure, called the renal corpuscular capsule, or Bowman’s capsule
encloses a cluster of microscopic blood vessels—capillaries—called the glomerulus
Blood flows into and away from the glomerulus through tiny arteries called arterioles, which reach and leave the glomerulus through the open end of the capsule
renal corpuscle, fluid filters out of the blood in the glomerulus through the inner wall of the capsule and into the nephron tubule
LOCATION OF DIGESTION AND ABSORBTION OF EACH MACROMOLECULE
digestion
digestion of food is a from of catabolism, in which the food is broken down into small molecules that the body can absorb and use for energy, growth and repair
digestion occurs when food is moved through the digestive system
begins in the mouth and end in the small intestine
final product of digestion are absorbed from the digestive tract, primarily in the small intestine
there are two different types of digestion that occur in the digestive system
mechanical digestion
chemical digetion
mehcanical digetion
physical process in which food is broken into smaller pieces without becoming changed chemically
begins with your first bite of food and continues as you chew food with your teeth into smaller pieces
process of mechanical digestion continues in the stomach
This muscular organ churns and mixes the food it contains, an action that breaks any solid food into still smaller pieces.
some mechanical digestion also occurs in the intestines, it is mostly completed by the time food leaves the stomach
Mechanical digestion is necessary so that chemical digestion can be effective
Mechanical digestion tremendously increases the surface area of food particles so they can be acted upon more effectively by digestive enzymes
chemical digestion
biochemical process in which macromolecules in food are changed into smaller molecules that can be absorbed into the body fluids and transported to cells throughout the body
Substances in food that must be chemically digested include carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids
Carbohydrates must be broken down into simple sugars, proteins into amino acids, lipids into fatty acids and glycerol, and nucleic acids into nitrogen bases and sugars
Some chemical digestion takes place in the mouth and stomach, but most of it occurs in the first part of the small intestine (duodenum).
Chemical digestion could not occur without the help of many different digestive enzymes
Enzymes are proteins that catalyze or speed up biochemical reactions
Digestive enzymes are secreted by exocrine glands or by the mucosal layer of the epithelium lining the gastrointestinal tract
In the mouth, digestive enzymes are secreted by salivary glands
The lining of the stomach secretes enzymes, as does the lining of the small intestine.
Many more digestive enzymes are secreted by exocrine cells in the pancreas and carried by ducts to the small intestine
absorption
when digestion is finished, it result in many simple nutrients molecules that must go through the process of absorption from the GI tract by blood or lymph so they can be used by cells throughout the body
A few substances are absorbed in the stomach and large intestine
bout 95 percent of nutrient molecules are absorbed in the small intestine
The absorption of the majority of these molecules takes place in the second part of the small intestine, called the jejunum
iron is absorbed in the duodenum
vitamin B12 is absorbed in the last part of the small intestine, called the ileum
After being absorbed in the small intestine, nutrient molecules are transported to other parts of the body for storage or further chemical modification
amino acids are transported to the liver to be used for protein synthesis
The epithelial tissue lining the small intestine is specialized for absorption
LAYERS OF THE OF TRACT
the wall of the GI tract from the esophagus to the anal canal has four layers from the deep to superficial
mucosa
inner most layer of the GI tract
mucous membrane
composed of epithelium, connective tissue (lamina propria) and a layer of smooth muscle (muscularis mucosa)
epithelium is in the mouth, pharynx, esophagus and anal canal is stratified squamous epithelium
lamina propria is a areolar connective tissue containing many blood and lymphatic vessels, nutrients absorbed into the GI tract
contains the mucosa, associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), immune system cells that protect against disease
muscularis mucosae throw the mucous membrane of the stomach and small intestine into many small folds, increase the surface area for digestion and absorption
submucosa
consist of areolar connective tissue that binds the mucosa to the muscularis
contains many blood and lymphatic vessel that receive absorbed food molecules
the network of neurons in this layer know as the submucosal plexus
muscularis
The muscularis of the mouth, pharynx, contains skeletal muscle that produces voluntary swallowing.
forms the external anal sphincter, which permits voluntary control of defecation
the muscularis consists of smooth muscle with circular fibers inner and an outer sheet of longitudinal fibers
Contractions of the smooth muscle help break down food, mix it with digestive secretions, and propel it along the tract
Between the layers of the muscularis is a plexus of neurons the myenteric plexus
serosa / adventitia
A superficial layer called the serosa
serous membrane composed of areolar connective tissue and simple squamous epithelium (mesothelium)
The serosa is also called the visceral peritoneum because it forms a portion of the peritoneum
The esophagus lacks a serosa, only a single layer of areolar connective tissue called the adventitia forms the superficial layer of this organ.