Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

psychopathology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - most common where a person fears a specific object in the environement
      - e.g.animal,injury etc
    - - involve feeling of anxiety in a specific social situation
      - e.g.preformance,interaction
    - - fear of open and public spaces can be cause by simple phobias and/or social phobias
  - - - panic-crying,screaming,running away
        
        children may freeze,cling or have a tantrum
      - avoidence-avoid coming into contact with the phobia stimulus
      - endurence-sufferer remains in the presence of the phobic stimulus but continues to have high levels of anxiety
    - - anxiety-unpleasant state of arousal
        
        prevents sufferer from relaxing and difficult to experience any positive emotion
      - unreasonable responses-responses in relation to phobic stimuli go beyond what is reasonable
    - - selective attention to phobic stimuli-can be hard to look away from stimulus as they are keeping attention on the danger
      - irrational beliefs-may hold irrational beliefs in relation to the phobic stimulus
      - cognitive distortions-phobics perception of the stimulus may be distorted
  - - - classical conditioning
      - slt
      - operant conditioning
    - - can explain how we learn to associate something we do not fear (ns) with something that triggers a fear response (ucr)
        
        after an association is formed, the ns causes a fear response and phobia
    - - phobias can be negatively reinforced
      - avoidence may reduce anxiety and negatively reinforces their behaviour making them repeat avoidance
    - - Watson and Raynor
        
        little Albert
      - behavioural treatments of phobias-systematic desensitation are successful-phobias are conditioned
      - not everyone with a phobia had an intial bad experience with the stimulus
        
        DiNardo
        
        studied a group of people with dog phobia and a matched pair design group
        
        50% of those with a phobia had a traumatic experience with a dog
      - cant explain evolutionary phobias e.g. heights
      - cognitive factors may explain phobias better
      - cant explain agoraphobia as they always stay inside so always feel safe
  - - - client and therapist develop a fear heirarchy together
      - e.g. lowest-photo highest-real life
    - - breathing,muscel relaxtion,mental imagery
    - - cant be anxious and relaxed at the same time
      - gradually moves up the fear heirarchy
    - - sd comes from research evidence that demonstartes effectiveness for treatment of phobias
      - McGrath et al
        
        75% of patients with phobias were successfully treated using sd-majority effectiveness
      - Gilroy et al
        
        examined 42 patients with arachnaphobia
        
        were treated with 3x45minute sd sessions
        
        3 months and 33 months later sd group were less fearful than control group (only taught realaxation techs)
        
        long term treatment
      - not effective in treating all phobias-patients who have not developed phobia through a personal experience
        
        some psychologists argue that evolutionary phobias are beneficial
      - expensive
  - - - invivo-actual real life exposure
      - invitro-imaginary exposure
    - - cost effective solution
      - Ougrin
        
        quick
      - traumatic and causes high levels on anxiety-even though patients must provide informed consent
      - many dont complete their treatment due to the stress
        
        waste of money and time if not completed
- - - - tired
      - no joy/pleasure
        
        (anhedonia)
      - unmotivated
    - - sad
      - unworthy
    - - insomnia/hypersomnia
      - isolation
      - uninvolved
      - psychomotor agitation
  - - - low mood all the time
    - - either manic and then low mood
  - - - 3 components
        
        cognitive bias
        
        more liekly to focus on negative aspects and ignore the positives and are prone to misinterpretating info
        
        negative self-schemas
        
        likely to interpret info about themselves in a negative way which could lead to cognitive bias
        
        negative triad
        
        view yourself,the world and the future negatively
    - - 3 stages to explain how irrational thoughts could lead to depression
        
        A-activating agent
        
        an event occurrs and they assume the worst
        
        B-beliefs
        
        personal interpretation
        
        either rational or irrational
        
        consequences
        
        rational or irrational
    - - application to therapy (CBT and REBT)
        
        attempt to identify and challange negative, irrational thoughts
      - does not explain the origins of irrational thoughts that cause depression or the other way around
      - possible for genes/neurotransmitters to be the cause of depression
      - depression is not seen as a biological condition caused by genes and neurotransmitters
        
        neurotransmitter seratonin and found lower levels in patients with depression
        
        SSRIs are found to be effective in the treatment of depression
      - Boury et al
        
        agrees with Beck
        
        patients with depression were more liekly to misinterpret info negatively and feel hopeless about their future
  - - - aims to identify irrational and negative thoughts and to replace them with positive thoughts
    - - encourages patients to test their believes through behavioural experiences and homeowrk
    - - initial assessment
      - goal setting
      - identifying negative thoughts and challenging them
      - using Ellis RationalEmotiveBehavioralTherapy to becks CognitiveBehaviouralTherapy
      - homework
  - - - achieved through dispute
    - - logical dispute
        
        therapist questions logic behind patients beliefs
      - empirical dispute
        
        therapist seeks evidence for their thoughts
- - - - compulsions,ordering,touching,counting
    - - anxiety,fear
    - - catastrophic beliefs,obsessions
  - - - polygenic-COMT gene and SERT gene
      - variation of COMT gene is higher levels of dopamine
      - SERT gene is linked to seratonin and causes lower levels of seratonin
      - evaluation
        
        Lewis
        
        examined patients with OCD
        
        found that 37% with OCD had parents with it and 21% of siblings had it too
        
        hard to determine id it genetic (nature) or upbringing (nurture)
        
        Nestadt et al twin studies
        
        meta analysis examining OCD
        
        68% of identical twins and 31% of non-identical twins experience OCD if theyre twin had it
        
        suggests strong genetic component
    - - brain structures
      - basal ganglia involves in multiple processes inc co-ordination of movement
        
        ppl who suffer head injurys in this region often develop OCD symptoms
      - Max et al
        
        when basal ganglia is disconnected from frontal cortex during surgery, OCD symptoms are reduced
      - orbitofrontal cortex converts sensory info into thoughts and actions
        
        PET scans found higher activity in the o cortex with those with OCD
      - evaluation
        
        anti-depressants work by increasing the neurotransmitter seratonin
        
        these drugs are effective in reducing OCD symptoms
        
        reductionist
        
        doesnt take in cognitive/mental factors
  - - - low levels of seratonin in brain
      - SSRIs (prozac) improve mood and reduce anxiety
      - alternatives
        
        SNRIs-not addictive but effective if SSRIs dont work
        
        Tricyclics-old style anti-depressants as a last resort if nothing else works as they have more side effects
        
        Benzodiazepines-range of anti-anxiety drugs. enhance action of neurotransmitter GABA and tells neurons in the brain to slow down (40% respond)
    - - research shows that 70% of patients saw an improvement in their symptoms of OCD
    - - quick,cheap and effective
      - Soomaroo et al
        
        SSRIs were more effective that placebos in 17 trials
      - side effects
        
        e.g. hallucinations,increased blood pressure
      - addictive and can cause increased aggression
      - only treats the symptoms,not the cause
- - - - abnormality is when a behaviour does not fit in with what is seen as socially acceptable
      - dependent on the culture in which the behaviour occurs
      - evaluation
        
        flexibility
        
        dependent on situation and age
        
        clarity
        
        in most instances you will have to live within a culture for a long time to be aware what is acceptable and unacceptable
        
        helps society
        
        adhering to social norms means society is ordered and predictable
        
        changes over time
        
        norms vary dependent on the time period
        
        lack of consensus between generations
        
        cultural differences
        
        so much variation cross culturally means that it is not always clear what is abnormal in other countries
        
        ethnic differences
        
        tend to be dictated by the majoirty
        
        can lead to a lack of understanding from both ethnic minoritiy and majority of people
        
        Rack
        
        African Carribeans in Uk are sometimes diagnosed as 'mentally ill' due to their behaviour
        
        but the behaviour is seen as normal in the culture
        
        (ethno-centrism)
    - - abnormal behaviour is when an ind is not able to cope with everyday life
      - acknowldges that people may act differently, but if they have a basic inability to manage in everyday life their behaviour is abnormal
      - Rosen and Seligman
        
        Global Assessment of Functioning scale
        
        unpredictability,maladaptive behviour,personal distess,irrationality,observer discomfort,violation of moral standards,unconventionality
      - evaluation
        
        consideration of how the ind feels
        
        focused on ind and how they are managing in their perspective
        
        measurable
        
        GAF scale allows the extent of the failure to function to be measured
        
        behaviours observable
        
        can be seen by others around the ind
        
        too much focus on the ind
        
        abnormal behaviours may not be a problem for the ind, but rather the people around them
        
        abnormality doesnt always stop functioning
        
        people may appear as fine but they have distorted thinking
        
        everyday life varies
        
        ability to cope with everyday life depends on what is seen as normal everyday life
    - - mathematical method for defining abnormality
      - mathematical element of the definition about the idea that human attributes fall into normal distrubtion within the population
        
        central average/mean and rest of pop fall just above or below the average
      - standard deviation
        
        measure informs us how far scores fall on either side away from the mean
        
        5% pop fall more than 2 standard deviation from the mean are abnormal
      - evaluation
        
        intuitive
        
        idea that abnormality is when something does not occur-often is an accepted definition
        
        objective
        
        mathematical nature of this definition means that it is clear what is defined as abnormal
        
        no bias-no opinion involved
        
        useful overview
        
        looks at the whole picture taking all the pop into account so can give a useful insight into the whole picture of a particular characteristic
        
        inflexible
        
        some behaviour which is deemed abnormal by diagnostic manuals is not seen as abnormal as they are within 2 sd from mean
        
        occur frequently
        
        it is not the case that abnormal, as in unhelpful and painful, behaviour occur rarely
        
        culture
        
        no consideration of cultural differences at all
        
        argues that the pop of the world are contained within the normal distrubution
    - - various theoretical descriptions of 'normality'
        
        if someone does not fit within this theoretical idea of normality,their behaviour is considered to be abnormal
      - Jahoda (ideal mental health)
        
        positive attitude towards the self
        
        self-actualization
        
        autonomy
        
        resistance to stress
        
        environmental mastery
        
        accurate perception of reality
      - evaluation
        
        focused
        
        allows for an ind who is struggling to have targeted intervention if their behaviour is not 'normal'
        
        positive
        
        focuses on what is helpful and desirable for the ind rather than the other way around
        
        feasibility
        
        shows that ideal mental health is practically impossible to achieve means that most of pop would be abnormal
        
        achievement of goals
        
        allows for clear goals to be set and focused upon to achieve ideal mental health and normality
        
        ethnocentrism
        
        makes the collectivist culture seem abnormal
        
        no global definition
        
        subjectivity
        
        vague criteria and difficult to measure