Mary I - Foreign Policy
What were her foreign policy aims in relation to foreign powers?
Restore papal supremacy in England
Marry Philip, the heir to the Spanish throne
What did Europe look like under Mary I?
England - During Edward's reign, English foreign policy had been changed due to Northumberland and the Treaty of Boulogne. With Mary's accession, Charles V looked for a pro-Habsburg policy from England and as well as the fact that Philip had married Mary in 1554
France - Henry II’s victories in 1552 (his capture of Metz, Toul and Verdun) shifted the main focus of the Habsburgs-Valois war away from Italy towards Germany and the Netherlands, thereby bringing England and the English Channel more directly into the major European arena of conflict.
Philip II’s Habsburg Empire – in January 1556, on his father’s abdication, Philip became the ruler of Spain, Spanish America, Naples and the Netherlands.
This massive inheritance and the realization in mid-1555 that Mary would not provide him with an heir meant that Philip now had little time for England.
The Habsburg-Valois War was briefly brought to a halt by the Truce of Vaucelles (February 1556), but the formation of a Franco-Papal alliance reopened the war (July 1556). Philip now demanded help from England, and Mary had to decide how she was going to respond.
Papacy – in 1555 the hard-line Paul IV became Pope. A Neapolitan, he wanted to fight the Habsburgs over their control of Naples. To achieve this, the Pope allied with France and Mary found herself brought into conflict with the Papacy that she had struggled for so long to re-join.
Holy Roman Empire – at the start of Mary’s reign, Europe was still dominated by the Habsburg-Valois War in the Netherlands and Germany. Charles V’s failure against the combined forces of the French and the German princes led to the Peace of Augsburg (1555), and to Charles’s abdication in October 1555. Charles’ brother, Ferdinand, became the Holy Roman Emperor with control only of Germany; the other territories went to Philip.
Scotland – remained the traditional enemy of England and had become more important since 1542 when Mary, Queen of Scots, had become the sole heir and was betrothed in 1548 to the dauphin of France.
War with France
As a result of the final struggle of the Habsburg-Valois conflict, Philip put considerable pressure on Mary to declare war
Mary undid the diplomacy of Northumberland and put English foreign policy back on the map and back into being anti-French
Mary declared war on France in 1557 and sent troops across the Channel to join Philip's forces.
They were able to achieve victory in the Battle of Saint Quentin
Within a year however, France had recovered and seized Calais which was a terrible blow to nationalist pride, highlighting how England's reputation had been tarnished
Calais had represented the last outpost of the great Medieval empire and this symbolised the limited role of the country within European affairs.
- This was a humiliating example of how Mary's marriage was more a convenience to Spain than England
Successes and failures of Mary I's foreign policy
SUCCESSES
Mary had resisted involvement as long as she could and the contribution finally made was modest (about 7000 troops) and non-committal.
The armed forces were substantially strengthened. With the encouragement of Philip, the navy was reorganised and improved - a Naval Treasurer was appointed and the number of ships available for active duty increased from three in 1555 to 21 in 1557.
Significant improvements took place in army recruitment. The insufficient old system of getting individual lords and gentlemen to raise troops was replaced with that of the militia, under which Lords Lieutenant and JPs in each country were now given responsibility to raise troops. This system lasted for 300 years.
Achieved both of her aims. But these aims conflict each other.
FAILURES
Mary’s marriage to Philip and her pursuit of pro-Spanish policies were unpopular and distanced her from her people.
Protecting England and English interests didn’t appear to be a significant priority, and English subjects felt that their country was being used as a Spanish pawn.
The Spanish-led policy resulted in England becoming a new battleground in the Habsburg-Valois War; it led to the loss of Calais which was a loss that affected the reputation of England and to Spain eventually replacing France as the principal enemy of England in Elizabeth’s reign.
Overall, failed to gain any tangible benefits from the alliance with the Spanish Habsburgs.
Mary's government has been credited in helping to revive England's great military and naval tradition, provided Elizabeth with the means to resist Spain later in the century