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INDUSTRIAL ORGANIZATIONAL PSYCH - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Subjective Measures -> (Performance Ratings)
        
        PR ratings account for situational factors -> useful when measuring motivation, problem-solving ability and effectiveness of working with others (e.g supervision of others).
        
        Cons -> Subject to rater-bias and errors
        
        Types of Subjective Rating Scales/Techniques
        
        1. Relative Rating Scales -> head-to-head comparison of employees (e.g. relative to something or someone else)
        
        Paired Comparisons -> indiv are compared on specific dimensions of job performance -> (e.g. work quality, job knowledge, communication)
        
        Pros -> decreases rater biases (strictness, leniency or central tendency) & provides insights into employees' preferences to help make informed decisions that will improve overall employee satisfaction.
        
        Cons -> very time consuming b/c lots of employees to rate
        
        Forced Choice/Distribution -> assigns a specific %age of workers to each category for each aspect of job performance
        
        cons-> provides inaccurate info when employers don't match the pre-specified categories -> not good for large groups
        
        pros -> decreases rater biases
        
        story ideas -> "relative" theme ???
        
        2. Absolute Rating Scale -> requires rater to evaluate without considering the performance of other employees (e.g. independent comparison)
        
        c) Behaviourally Anchored Rating Scales (BARS) -> type of rating scale which each end point is anchored with descriptive bx's (e.g. Likert scale for a bx)
        
        Cons -> very time-consuming to develop & job specific
        
        Pros -> decreases rater biases, & provides useful feedback to workers
        
        is about performance feedback
        
        a) Critical incident technique (CIT) -> identifies employee bx's associated with exceptionally poor or good performance (e.g. supervisor observes and completes +/- critical incident q's)
        
        Pros -> provides useful feedback to employees
        
        Cons -> time-consuming to develop & focuses on extreme bx's
        
        add examples from Nicole's I/O stuff
        
        b) Graphic Rating Scale -> rater rates employee's performance on several performance dimensions on a Likert scale
        
        Pros -> they are easy to construct
        
        Cons -> they are vulnerable to rater biases
        
        Anchor story -> Absolute = absent of individ performance
        
        research says -> peer ratings are valid predictors of job performance, especially for job supervisors
        
        Pros
        
        provide info that's useful for giving employees feedback on their performance
        
        they allow raters to take situational factors that take performance into account
        
        they provide info on aspects of performance that can't be assessed objectively
      - Objective Measures-> (Quantitative Data)
        
        Cons
        
        not available for all jobs -
        
        may be impacted by situational factors (e.g. malfunctioning equipment)
        
        Not very useful when evaluating complex jobs.
        
        Direct measures of productivity -> (e.g. # of errors, accidents, absences, etc.)
    - - Actual Criterion -> what the job performance measure actually measures -> (observable & measurable)
      - Ultimate Criterion -> the ideal measure that assesses all important aspects of job performance -> observable & unobservable
        
        Criterion Contamination ->
        
        Criterion Deficiency ->add defintions from Nicole stuff
      - Criterion deficiency and Criterion deficiency are two reasons for the gap between ultimate and actual criteria
        
        Criterion Deficiency -> aspects of a job performance that are not assessed by the criterion measure (e.g. what should be measured that is not).
        
        Criterion Contamination -> occurs when the criterion measure is impacted by factors unrelated to job performance (e.g. what is not measured but should be)
      - overlaps with stats and test construction, do not duplicate this
  - - - Identify measures of job performance
      - determine training needs
      - develop and validate selection instruments
      - obtain info needed to write a job description
      - make decisions about job design and re-design
    - - interviewing employees
      - surveys/questionnaires
      - Direct observation
      - electronic performance monitoring
      - work diaries
      - A1 S3 -> Sherlock meets with the board for debriefing about his methods in a control room (Electronic Survallience).
      - The presentation ends, the company is so happy they offer to hire him to do the job evaluation.
      - At the meeting there is The Kid from Diary of a wimpy kid (worker diaries),
      - Pac man (PAQ- questionnaires) and Joe Rogan recording a podcast (interview)
      - Sherlock hands out night vision goggles (direct observation) and says, please direct your attention to the findings of my analysis.
      - Sherlock refuses saying he contracts that to Dr. Watson- who bangs into the room with money guns! (Job evaluation)- End scene.
    - - 2. Worker Orientated (aka-person-oriented) -> KSAO's -> knowledge, skills, abilities and other characteristics are required to do the job successfully (eg. education, physical ability etc.)
        
        Competency Modeling -> always worker-oriented which focuses on characteristics required to perform a job successfully (typically linked to organizational values, goals & strategies)
        
        Position Analysis Questionnaire -> is a structured questionnaire that allows an employer to compare activities across different jobs
      - 1. Work-orientated (task-oriented, job-oriented)
        
        tasks that must be done to do the job (e.g. lifting, typing, installing)
      - A1 S2 Shelock
        
        In another room Sherlock has set up a bunch of work tasks as an obstacle course (Work Oriented).
        
        He then does a KASO interview with two workers, The Joker and Harley Quinn specifically asking questions about their knowledge, abilities, skills and other (Worker Oriented).
    - - KSAO example (waiting tables) -> knowledge of menu, interpersonal communication, multi-tasking, organizational skills, etc.
      - do I need this, review my master class notes
- - - - it can be controlled by
        
        forced choice method -> choosing btwn 2 equally desirable/undesirable attributes
        
        BARS -> performance is based on critical incidents
        
        training the raters
    - - Operator B is quite rude and receives a rating of "unacceptable."
      - Operator A says "thank you" twice and uses a friendly tone of voice -> Supervisor rates Operator A
        "average."
      - A supervisor is rating telephone operators on courtesy.
      - Operator C says "thank you" once and uses a business-like tone of voice -> Supervisor rates operator C "above average."
    - - Everyone is "MEH" -> Central tendency bias -> rater consistently gives workers average ratings, regardless of their true performance
      - "Lazy" -> Leniency/strictness bias -> rater consistently gives workers high (leniency) or low (strictness) ratings, regardless of performance
        
        task-based
        
        all or nothing can't be lenient and strict, it's one or the other
    - - Average Joe works in video retail and his job is to rates video games -> all video games are average -> (Central tendency) = everyone's performance is average
      - EA Sports 2023 Phil Sims -> Phil is creating a superteam, by hiring a coaching staff, looking for clones of himself b/c he is so awesome (similarity bias)
      - His co-worker Lean Lenny has a different strategy he is either too lean or too strict (leniency or strictnesa) -> every game he reviews either sucks or kicks ass
      - Unfortunately, he can't find anyone b/c of a hiring glitch, hiring manager staff is constantly rating people against other workers who are average Joe's who wears a shirt that is the testing pattern (contrast error)
  - - - Low validity for predicting job performance
      - i) Overt integrity test -> ask directly about attitudes towards history of dishonesty & theft
      - ii) Personality-based integrity test -> assess aspects of personality linked to dishonesty, discipline issues, and other counter-productive bxs
      - When general mental ability is combined with another selection measure, integrity test provided the biggest gains.
    - - Conscientiousness is the best predictor of job performance and training success across a wide range of settings.
    - - Less likely than other methods to unfairly discriminate against minorities.
      - validity coefficient slighter higher when compared to general mental ability tests
      - decrease in validity attributed to types of work samples (e.g. manual labour vs. service jobs)
      - ii) Realistic work samples -> often include a realistic job preview (RJP), where applicants learn about positive and negative aspects of the job to reduce employee turnover by creating realistic expectations
      - i) Trainability work samples -> best for applicants who don't have previous job experience -> useful for determine if inexperienced applicants will benefit from training
    - - Structured interviews
        
        better predictors of job performance
        
        ii) situational -> future-oriented based on hypothetical situations -> highest validity when using structured board interviews
        
        i) behavioural assumption is that past bxs are predictors of future bxs
      - research says -> structured & unstructured interviews have the same validity coefficient & 2nd most valid predictors of job performance, behind general mental ability tests
      - Unstructured interviews ->
    - - Job specific and often conducted when an applicant has previous job experiance. Validity increases as as job complexity and job test similarity increase
    - - High validity & most valid predictor of job performance -> High risk of adverse impact
      - Research says that ....GMA tests are linked to high performance & productivity and decreased turnover
    - - Empirically derived items ask about an applicant's work history, education, interests and skills in multiple-choice format and are scored ->
      - highly predictive of job performance from skilled to unskilled
      - Cons of BIB -> lacks face validity -> b/c some may consider them to be irrelevant and an invasion of privacy and refuse to answer the questions.
    - - Simulations
        
        a) In-basket test -> used to assess decision-making skills while responding to simulated on the job tasks
        
        b) leaderless group discussion -> used to evaluate the leadership potential of participants and requires small group to work together to solve job-related problems
      - Cons -> expensive and not an easy resource to access. Evaluations are susceptible to criterion contamination.
    - - American's with Disabilities Act (ADA, 1990): it is a civil rights law that prohibits discrimination against individuals with disabilities. It ensures equal opportunities and access for people with disabilities in various aspects of life, such as employment, public accommodations, transportation, and telecommunications.
    - - Criterion Contamination when the criteria measure is impacted but factors are unrelated to job performance -> occurs when a rater (supervisor) knows how a ratee (employee) did on a predictor test, which influences a rater (supervisor's) ability to assess an employee's performance.
      - Criterion Defficiency aspects of job performance that are not assessed by the criteria measure (e.g. evaluating secretary, but not using WPM)
    - - Before using a selection technique for hiring you must determine if it has adequate reliability and validity
        
        Validity -> does it measure what it is supposed to
        
        Incremental Validity is used to increase decision-making accuracy -> it occurs when a new selection technique (predictor) is added to an existing selection procedure
        
        Selection Ratio - percent of job applicants that company plan to hire -> (formula = dividing # of applicants that will be hired, by total # of applicants)
        
        Base Rate -> percentage of employees who were hired using the current selection procedure that are considered successful
        
        PJTQ -> a moderate base rate and a low selection ratio (few candidates) increases the likelihood a selection test will provide incremental validity
        
        watch the Daniel Storage videos
        
        Incremental Validity= Positive Hit Rate (New)- Base Rate(Old)
        
        Taylor Russel Tables -> used to obtain an estimate of predictor's incremental validity for various combinations of criterion-realted coefficients, base rate and selection ratio.
        
        70% (new) - 50% (Old) = 20% (incremental validity)
        
        incremental = increase
        
        ii) construct validity -> the degree to which a test measures the thing that is trying to be measured (e.g. depression, aggression, etc.)
        
        iii) criterion-related validity -> does the test accurately reflect a set of abilities in a current or future setting
        
        i) concurrent criterion validity -> about the here and now. Does it assess accurately my student's level of ability (e.g. exam of 95% suggest that you have mastered the material)
        
        predictive validity -> does it assess how my student will do on an exam -> it is future-based (e.g. SAT, ACT, MCAT, etc)
        
        i) content validity -> does it accurately have the necessary content to assess the construct being measured
        
        Reliability -> the degree to which the predictor is free from the effects of measurement (random) error
        
        methods for evaluating reliability is correlation coefficient -> range from 0 to 1.0, the higher the coefficient is to 1.0, the less effect the measure of error and greater the consistency of scores
      - Uniform Guidelines on Employee Selection
        Procedures describe test unfairness & differential validity as situations that cause adverse impact
        
        job-relatedness -> established by showing that a procedure is valid, a business necessity, or a bona fida occupations qualification
        
        Adverse Impact (aka - Disparate Impact) OR 80% -> 4/5th Rule -> occurs when selection rate for a minority group is less than 80% of the selection rate of the majority group.
        
        i) Test Unfairness -> when one group (age, race, gender, etc.) consistently scores lower than another on a selection test but both group perform equally well on the job.
        
        parallel regression lines would suggest that test unfairness is occuring
        
        (Examples -> only doing background checks on certain candidates and not others, testing recent immigrants on their ability to be proficient in writing and reading English)
        
        ii) Differential Validity-> means that it is less valid for one group than for another group.
        
        listen to psychprep audios
        
        strong validity coefficient -> how valid is the relationship between woman and job performance...
        
        Griggs vs. Duke Power
      - Utility Analysis it's a method for evaluating the "economic return" or investment of human resources training (e.g. staffing & training)
    - - non-compensatory methods -> when a low score on (1) predictor cannot be used to compensate for a high score on another predictor
        
        multiple hurdle -> must obtain a score above the cutoff on each predictor for the next one to be administered -> If you don't pass the 1st one, you don't move on -> saves time and money
        
        multiple cut-off (aka conjunctive) -> all predictors are administered to all applicants, and everyone that's above the cutoff score on each predictor will be considered for the job
        
        conjunct = cut-off
      - compensatory methods -> are used when a high score on (1 or more) predictors compensate for a lower score an a different predictor
        
        2) multiple regression (aka- additive) -> statistical method for combining scores -> each predictor is weighted which is used to create an estimated criterion score.
        
        1) clinical prediction -> relies on the subjective judgement of decision makers based on their familiarity of the job and the job requirements -> susceptible to biases and errors
        
        regress -> hair loss = trying to cover up "comb-over"
      - Anchor Story "NWA - Compton" -> living in the ghetto (Comp- Compton) vs. living outside (non-comp)
        
        Non-comp (outside the ghetto)
        
        NWA is cruising outside of the ghetto and recognizes a white dude who was blamed for a drive-by in his hood, he feels the urge to attack and to cut-off his ears (multiple cutoff)
        
        He pulls out switch blade and he starts chasing him, but he can't catch him b/c he is hurdling every obstacle in his path (multiple hurdles)
        
        Comp (inside the ghetto)
        
        NWA decides to go rob a medical clinic clinical b/c he wants the drugs stored on-site b/c trying to prove he belongs in the gang -> the gang wil later vote (subjective) to determine if he is "bad enough" to be part of the gang
        
        He feels guilty and later visit a church, jumps into a confessional to ask forgiveness for his sins multiple regression
      - In the literature on the psychology of groups, a distinction between additive, conjunctive, disjunctive, and compensatory tasks is sometimes made. Let's briefly go through the other type of tasks:...
        
        Additive tasks permit the addition of individual efforts so that the outcome is a combination of individual contributions. This is the type of task described by the question: The combined efforts of all group members will determine if the tasks are completed and team members receive a bonus.
        
        On conjunctive tasks, everyone must achieve a given goal in order for the task to be complete. As a result, task performance depends on the performance of the least competent group member
        
        On disjunctive tasks, the group must choose one of many alternative ways to do the task. Thus, performance on a task depends on the performance of the most competent group member, because if one person can complete the task, the task gets completed
        
        Finally, on compensatory tasks, the average performance of all group members represents the group's product
  - - - Tasks analysis -> similar to job analysis, specifies what knowledge and skills are needed.
      - Person analysis -> determines if employees have deficits in areas ID'd by the task analysis.
      - Organization analysis asks is training what will solve the problem.
      - Demographic analysis -> helps determine the training need of employees from different groups (ex. young v. old)
      - Org needs = training requirements
    - - Vestibule Training(Off the Job training): provided training with a simulation of the actual work.
      - Programmed Instruction: self-learning material provided by the employer. Can involve pen and paper or computer assisted instruction.
      - On the Job Training: Job Rotation is one approach where the individual is rotated through several jobs to increase their range of skills so they can preform multiple jobs in the company
      - Realistic Job Preview: provide applicant with an accurate picture of a specific job, n can reduce turnover by 20%, thereby increasing longevity of employment.
    - - Dessinger - Moseley (full-scope evaluation) model -> Program Evaluation
        
        Comfirmative Evaluation -> evaluation that occurs long after the completion of training to confirm it utility.
        
        Formative Evaluation: evaluation administered while programs forming = in progress still being formed or participated in.
        
        Meta-evaluation -> happens after the previous 3 are completed to confirm reliability and validity
        
        Summative Evaluation: evaluation administered at the summary sum it up..the end of the program.
      - Kirkpatricks 4 levels evaluation model
        
        ii. Learning criteria -> how well the trainees acquired the info & skills from training
        
        iii. Behaviour Criteria -> the degree to which trainees' job performance improved
        
        i. Reaction criteria -> assess the trainee's impression of the training
        
        iv. Results Criteria -> assess the effects of training on return-on-investment (ROI) -> results are most useful criteria
        
        Captain Kirk Anchor Story - ran out of time and did not review
    - - Frame of Reference (FOR) -> when managers are trained on how to evaluate staff -> improves accuracy by;
        
        b) raters practice identifying different levels of performance as defined by the standard
        
        c) provides raters with a common reference standard to be used in evaluating performance
        
        a) making sure raters understand multidimensional aspects of job performance
        
        goal -> to help raters to distinguish btwn different levels of employee performance
      - Inter-rater reliability -> indicates the consistency of scores (extent of agreement among raters)
      - consensual observer drift -> occurs when raters who rate together tend to become less accurate in their ratings
        
        hint: drift into following everyone else
- - - - Artistic
        
        Creative, intuitive and imaginative (e.g. Writer, musician & artist)
      - Social
        
        Humanistic, idealistic and concerned for others (e.g. teacher or counsellor)
      - Investigative
        
        Analytical, observant and inquisitive (e.g. science, math and technology)
      - Enterprising
        
        Energetic, Ambitious, Adventurous and self-confident (e.g. sales, entrepreneurs and business executives)
      - Realistic
        
        Practical, physical, hands-on (e.g. gardener, engineer and military)
      - Conventional
        
        Efficient, careful conforming and organized (e.g. Accountant, secretary and banker)
      - Key Terms
        
        Incongruence –> is the lack of fit between one’s type and work environment. People leave jobs because of too much incongruence or because of a chance to increase their congruence. Best decision makers are I’s; worst are C’s.
        
        Consistency -> closeness on the hexagon of one’s first and second choices. The higher one’s consistency, the more integrated one’s characteristics (values, interests, traits) and the greater one’s vocational maturity, persistence and achievement.
        
        Differentiation -> the amount of spread between one’s first and second code letters; denotes how clear one’s type is.
      - Core Assumption -> when choosing a career, people prefer jobs where they can be around others who are like them.
      - Anchor Story Holland University
        
        Holland University, Student= Hex (Hexagon shape)
        
        Differentiation -> The Holland Crest is a hexagon spread out and the school motto is differentiate yourself -> (differentiation is when scores are high on only (1) of the personality types
        
        Incongruence -> Our student goes to sign up for classes and the admin says they need to explore all the faculties before selecting their course because the school has had issues with choosing a career (incongruence)
        
        Consistency: Admin advises student that their second career choice needs to check left and check right to find the most consistent option, if there is too much gap then they have to meet with a guidance counsellor.
        
        Different faculties: Hex goes to explore the faculties:
        
        Realistic: Hex walks into the faculty and notices it's partially outdoors and has a beautiful garden (Gardner), but in the middle of the garden is a greasy mechanic (engineer) shop. The 4th brigade appears and starts marching, left, right, left, where Tom Hanks yelling orders -> follows the soldiers to the next part of the building
        
        Investigative: Hex walks into the "I" building and meets Sheldon and Big Bang Crew -> Leonard (physicist), Raj (astrophysicist), Howard (Engineer) & Sheldon (genious) -> Sheldon says you are standing in my spot -> Hex leaves and goes to the "A" wing.
        
        Artistic: enters the building, there is a dress rehearsal going on, music is being played by an orchestra (musician) and queer guy (creative/artist) is there in a fluster trying to get things ready for the big performance. Hex is kicked out because rehearsals are closed so he is ushered into the S building.
        
        Social And there is Cam and Janelle at a meeting that turned into a social event, with teachers, HR and nurses. They are mastering the art of digression, eating a charcuterie board and drinking wine.
        
        Enterprising: When he enters the E building it looks like and episode of dragon’s den. The panel is made of Kevin Oleary Trump, Warren Buffet and Kisosk Girl -> Hex is intimidated by the panel, he runs from the building and enters the C building.
        
        Conventional: In the C building is a huge library (librarian) but the front desk is actually a bank teller's desk (banker). Gieco the lizard (insurance broker) is sitting on the desk saying 15 minutes could save you up to 15% on car insurance.
        
        Hex leaves and goes to the admin to decide his classes.
        
        School slogan is "Be a Dic, and differentiate yourself"
      - Job satisfaction is greatest when personality & job environment are a match
    - - 2 Phases
        
        i). Anticipation: individuals become aware of the need to make a career decision and begin to gather information about their interests, values, and skills.
        
        ii). Implementation Phase: individuals put their career choice into action.
      - key concepts
        
        Two kinds of reality -> Personal reality and common reality -> one must be aware of both realities to enhance the development of your career.
        
        Differentiation: comes when their is a realization that an occupation is not 'fitting' with a person's personality.
      - Anchor Story "The Big Wave" -> Big Scotsman & Erickson compete in a surfer competition (based on Erickson's social learning)
        
        paddling outin the water to compete in a surfboard competition. He is anticipating (Anticipation phase)
        
        the next wave and trying to decide what approach he will implement when he is catches the wave (implementation phase)
        
        He kills it and now identifies as having a big ego and feels he super-confident about his skills, reinforced but his perfect score
      - Based on Erikson's psychosocial theory of ego identity
    - - Stages: (Getting Every Experience Means Death)
        
        Growth 0-14-> develop self concept and move from play to work.
        
        Exploration 15-24-> develop realistic self-concept, find preferences through exploration. Preferences become choices when acted upon.
        
        Establishment 25-44 -> secure niche in ones field and advance.
        
        Maintenance 45-64-> (Mechanical shop) -> preserve our gains and develop non-occupational interests.
        
        Disengagement or Decline 65+ -> (Unplug off the grid) -> deceleration of career, gradual disentanglement from work to enter retirement. Find other sources of satisfaction
      - Key Terms
        
        Life roles- 8 roles (child, student, leisurite, citizen, worker, parent, spouse, homemaker)
        
        Self-Concept- as self-concept becomes for realistic and stable so will vocational choice and behaviour. Work satisfaction tied to degree of implementation of self-concept.
        
        Career Maturity -> similarity between one's actual vocational behaviour and what is expected at that stage of development. Affective and Cognitive.
      - Anchor Story -> Super Career Man with a rainbow cape
        
        Career Maturity - Super Career Man is giving Boss Baby a reality cheque about his level of maturity and job he can do.
        
        Life space/roles- Super Career Man takes Boss Baby to the Life Roles museum to show him where he is in the life stages and where he will be one day. It’s about the journey not the destination.
        
        Self-concept- Super career man gets boss baby to look in the mirror to reflect on himself and his abilities.
        
        Anchor Story -> Super Career Man
        
        however the show ends early and the History Channel comes on showing an episode from the Hall of Establishments (Establishment).
        
        Disappointed Super Career Man decides to go the country club to play tennis with some lawyers (Maintenance).
        
        He decided to relax by watching Dora the Explorer (Exploration)
        
        However when he arrives an older couple is throwing an engagement party, he is offered some cake and is confused when the cake reads happy retirement -> (Disengagement/Decline).
        
        Super Career Man goes home after an exhausting with Boss baby and water his sad plant he is trying to grow so one day it will bear fruit (Growth)
        
        He eats cake, goes home and goes to bed- the end.
    - - Emphasis is on matching a person's skills, needs, and preferences to the characteristics/requirements of the job
        
        ii) Satisfaction -> an employee's satisfaction with their job
        
        i) Satisfactoriness -> an employer's satisfaction with their employee's
      - work adjustment = satisfaction
      - It's a Saturday (Satisfactoriness) and the employees are mad b/c they hate working on weekends.
      - Workers protest working on weekends, by turning on the Rolling Stones and singing "I can't get no satisfaction" -> (Satisfaction),
      - Anchor story Saturday at the factory -> Work Adjustment Theory
      - Everyone starts dancing & singing, but their suspenders keep falling down and they have to keep adjusting them -> everyone starts to chanting "you need to adjust".
      - power surge & everything stops -> A worker lights a match so they can start the music again
    - - 4 core concepts
        
        Linear -> motivated by desire for power & achievement -> upward movmt and infrequent career changes
        
        Expert -> motivated by job security, career is life-long mastery/skills are more important than upward movement
        
        Transitory -> motivated by a desire for independence, later movmt every 2-4 yrs across different occupations
        
        Spiral -> motivated by need for personal growth, opportunities to be creative, lateral job movmt every 5-10 yrs
      - Anchor Story -> 4 guys are loaded into an idea (concept) mobile the French driver (Brousseau) is being interviewed about their motivations and career plans
      - Villian/Hamburgler accountant -> He's climbing the ladder linear and he wants power, his aspiration are to work in the Big glass M-shaped tower in the sky.
      - Vampire Electrician -> he's focused on job security -> organization is flat, b/c he owns the business which he has been running his company for the last 100 years
      - Spiro (Spiral) the Dragon -> he is a jack of all trades, very loyal and dedicated almost to a fault
      - Trans (transitory) Gypsy switching up careers and genders.
    - - Circumscription: progressive elimination of least preferred options or alternatives that occurs as children become aware of occupational differences in gender, prestige and then field of work.
      - Stages start at age 3 and end by mid-adolescents. The 4 stages are: orientation to size and power, orientation of sex roles, influence of social class, introspection and perceptiveness.
      - Compromise: expansion of occupational preference in recognition and accommodation to external constraints encountered in implementing preferences.
      - ignore for now
    - - Three parenting orientations: Overprotective, Avoidant and Acceptant. ex. a child with avoidant parents would gravitate towards object orientated fields such as science and technology.
      - Anchor Story: Person and their parent are rowing a boat down the river and billboards with their childhood experiences on them and then come up with different careers on the shore and the parent asks, which will you choose, consider your history.
    - - 4 types of influences on career making decisions
        
        3) Learning experiences- observations and lessons we make about other people and their experiences.
        
        4) task approach skills -> problem-solving skills, work habits, etc -> the skills needed to choose a career path
        
        2) Environment Conditions and Events -> beyond one's control (e.g. political, cultural, technological forces, etc)
        
        1) Genetic Characteristics/Special abilities -> genetics may enable or limit career choice (e.g. intelligence, innate abilities, etc)
        
        Anchor story Krum & magic Genie of 4 wishes
        
        wish #3 -> he asks to be a powerful CEO, to make up for his troubled childhood -> The Genie pulls out a bobo doll and says ..."hit" the Bobo doll to earn a bonus Happenstance wish (task approach)that could help him advance his career ambitions
        
        wish #1 -> Krum is upset about his past and complains to the genie about the "poor hand he has been dealt" which he blames on his genetics. He recalls his childhood and he was he was forced to wear blue jeans and a turban with SES on it (genetics limits career choices & poor environmental conditions).
        
        wish #2 -> Krum starts complaining about his education b/c he learned very few life skills and felt stupid (learning experiences & task approach).
        
        Krum is a bum who finds a magic lamp, he rubs it, genie appears offering him 4 wishes, not 3 (4 influences)
      - Based on Bandura's Social Learning Theory -> The Genie is a "bobo doll"
      - Core assumption -> being adaptable to new experiences is NB for career success
      - Happenstance Theory -> is being adaptable and open to new experiences that are important for career success
        
        chance events and environmental factors shape career development
        
        individuals who actively seek out opportunities and remain open to new experiences increases the likelihood that **positive happenstances will occur in a more fulfilling career.
    - - Aptitude Tests: assess a persons potential for learning and performance.
        
        Special Aptitude Tests: used to assess specific abilities needed for a job, they have a high degree of specificity.
        
        Multiple Aptitude Batteries: a number or tests or subtests that each measure a different aptitude. DAT (Differentia Aptitude Test)for grades 8-12 and tests both job-related and general abilities. The GATB (General AptitudeTest Battery) for high school and adults for vocational counseling and job referral.
      - Achievement Tests: measure how well a person has mastered a particular domain.
      - Ability Test- both achievement and aptitude with the ability being 'capacity to preform tasks'.
      - not sure what this is - ask Janelle stuff was on the test
    - - Affective/attitudinal: a workers emotional attachment to a job, passion for their work and commitment to their organization. This only moderately relates to job performance.
      - Continuance: remain at a job for economic or social reasons, they perceive leaving as too costly.
      - Normative: sense of loyalty based on investments the organization has already made in the employee and they stay out of obligation.
      - not sure what this is?? Ask janelle
    - - A person’s career anchor is his or her self-concept consisting of self-perceived talents and abilities, basic values, motives, and needs as they pertain to the career. Schein says that people are primarily motivated by one of eight anchors — priorities that define how they see themselves and how they see their work. The eight anchors include: technical/functional competence – a desire to excel in a chosen line of work; general managerial competence – closely allied with the traditional career path of the corporation; autonomy/independence – individuals just want to be alone; security/stability – value predictable environment in which tasks and policies are clearly codified and defined; entrepreneurial creativity – desire to create something of own and run it; service/dedication to a cause – the need to focus work around a specific set of values; pure challenge – seek to solve or master challenges; and lifestyle – organized around an individual’s private life.
    - - Kuder Interest Inventory (KOIS)
      - Strong Interest Inventory (SII)
      - Interest Assessment are good predictors of job choice and job satisfaction
- - - - Maslow
        
        love & belonging can be defined as a "social need"
      - Alderfer -> was interested in better understanding professional motivation -> professional motivation as an end - a desirable outcome of needs being met.
      - Herzberg's 2-factor theory -> Satisfaction & Motivation
        
        Higher level needs are Individual Motivators that are Job content specific -> factors related to one's performance
        
        recognition
        
        responsibility
        
        achievement
        
        advancement
        
        higher level needs are about motivators or satisfier
        
        **(Hygiene) Lower level -> factors that need to be present to ensure a reasonable level of employee satisfaction -> they are a pre-requisite for individual motivation
        
        Examples of hygiene (job context) are about the job conditions created by the employer such as;
        
        interpersonal relations (overly nice)
        
        positive work environment
        
        job security
        
        Relationship with co-workers
        
        Hygiene factors are dissatisfiers related to job context
        
        Anchor Story -> Hermie (dentist), Abominable Snow Monster & Yukon
        
        Hermie's wants to be a dentist & his motivators are hygiene related (e.g. work environment)
        
        Yukon is an explorer and is motivated by rewards & recognition
        
        Satisfaction vs. dissatisfaction
        
        Satisfaction and dissatisfaction are separate phenomena
        
        Lower-level needs are "dissatisfiers" and higher level needs are "satisfiers"
      - McClelland's Acquired Needs Theory
        
        Affiliation (nAff) -> motivated by opportunities to form relationship & interact w others
        
        Power (nPow) -> ability to influence other people to gain status, prestige & recognition
        
        Achievement (nAch) -> prefers tasks that are moderate difficulty & risk (50/50), & assume responsibility for accomplishing tasks, prefer not to delegate & desire clear feedback
        
        As long as that primary need is met from the perspective of the worker then the worker will be motivated. The perspective bit is key.
        
        core assumption -> people are primarily motivated (in the workplace) by 1 of 3 needs in the workplace -> if you understand their needs you can use this to keep them motivated
        
        Archie (The achiever) -> very focused on his success...PMA "everything is awesome" -> more preferred than other 2
        
        Pow is a little Asian dude that's jacked (Power) -> doesn't depend on anyone else
        
        Alfred "the hippy" (Affiliation)-> all about peace, love and happiness, wants to be everyone's friend
        
        Anchor story McLelland is on the APA board evaluating the following (3) candidates on their motivation levels -> "big watch" on his hand representing how needs" are acquired over time
      - Equity Theory (Adams)
        
        Types of inequity
        
        ii) Underpayment inequity -> when workers perceive their efforts to be greater that others (more work for less pay)
        
        i) Overpayment inequity -> when workers view their efforts to be less than others (less work for more pay)
        
        core assumption -> people are motivated when they feel that things are fair (inputs vs. outputs) in an attempt to find balance
        
        Adam was upset with God b/c of working conditions in the garden (overpay vs. underpay) -> he was working way harder than Eve so he filed a grievance -> he was kicked out of the garden b/c Adam was more concerned about fairness instead of obedience.
        
        inputs vs outputs -> most similar to social comparison -> complex relationship btwn pay, motivation & other factors
        
        "fairness" in outcomes, through comparing onself with other workers, and adjusting our efforts base on perception of it being fair.
    - - i) Distributive Justice-> refers to fairness of the distribution of resources & other outcomes
      - ii) Procedural Justice -> refers to fairness of the procedures used to determine outcomes
      - iii) Interactional Justice -> the fairness of how the outcomes are communicated
        
        Informational Justice: appropriateness of the explanation given for the procedures used.
        
        Interpersonal Justice: the manner in which people are treated by authority figures in the decision making process.
      - Research says -> all 3 are positively related to job consensus
    - - Valence-> the value (reward) for the work performed
      - Expectancy -> (effort) will lead to positive performance and job completion
      - Instrumentality -> successful performance will (result) in certain outcomes (e.g. paycheque, job security)
      - If you think you can take an action that will directly lead to obtaining a reward you want, you will be motivated to take that action.
      - unmotivated individuals
        
        believe they can't take action b/c they lack the skills/knowledge OR something in the environment makes it impossible to act
        
        believe that their actions will actually lead to the reward
        
        don’t care about the reward(s)
      - **Anchor Story Vroom & Vie's Fraternity -> Revenge of the Nerds -> The "v" theme is everywhere, nerds enter the house, there is an obstacle course with 3 parts
        
        Initiation begins as they enter the "frat house" and they must Go onto roof and limbo under the bar (Expectancy)
        
        Nerds believe they believe that they actually have a chance to become part of the Fraternity
        
        then pick up tamborine (instrumentality) and play an original song, where they will be rated on performance
        
        Will actual performance lead to joining the frat? YES!!!
        
        then they must jump through the vale (Valence) and out the window as they hold a blanket to brace their fall. Can they trust that they will not get hurt?
        
        the end result is desirable = Officially "cool"
        
        the winner receives the "V-chain" **and gets to join the Frat = uber-fulfilling b/c of its value to the individual
      - motivation = expectancy X (times) instrumentality X (times) valence
      - motivation is high only when all 3 factors are positive
      - need some examples b/c the exam questions are confusing
    - - core assumption -> goal acceptance & commitment is crucial
        
        iii) Commitment -> being engage b/c it is something you actually care about
        
        vi) Feedback-> helps to make adjustments along the way
        
        ii) Challenge -> goals should be challenging enough to motivate you to action
        
        iv) Complexity (Control) -> it can't be too complicated ->
        
        i) Clarity (Specific) -> goals should be specific and clear
        
        v) Public--> social accountability
      - Research says that
        
        participation increases commitment when the worker has a high need for achievement OR the worker doesn't accept assigned goals
        
        When setting their own goals, the goals tend to be more difficult than the goals the supervisor would have set alone
        
        Participation in goal-setting is not necessary for goal commitment
        
        Group goals
        
        result in better performance than indiv. goals when the accomplishment of a task requires a high degree of worker interdependence
        
        in group setting indv. goals produce poorer performance that group goals. A combination of group and indivdual goals is no more effective than group goals alone.
    - - This model suggests that all people have the SAME basic motivational “needs” jobs have (5) core aspects that elicit a motivated response.
      - I. Meaningfulness of work includes the following (3) variables
        
        a). task identity -> do we identify with the completed piece of work, from begining to end.
        
        c). task significance -> does the end product (e.g. widget) have a purpose
        
        b). skill variety-> the more variety we have, the more enjoy the work
      - 2. Autonomy -> our sense of responsibility for the work the we do -> making decisions along the way
      - 3. Feedback -> the extent to which we get quality feedback about our performance -> the more we get, the better we feel = greater motivation
      - Anchor Story - The Old Hack
      - Motivation Potential which is calculated based on meeting (3) principle needs
      - Summary -> putting in place the right job characteristics for people that work for you, people will be more motivated and they will be more satisfied with the work that they do
      - ideal for employees with high growth needs
      - core assumption -> we get intrinsic reward from completing a job task
- - - - Six Sigma -> training via statistical analysis and project management, used to problem-solve & reduce defect rate of products
      - Quality Circle (QC's) -> small groups of staff who volunteer to meet to discuss problems & resolve issues
      - Benchmarking -> a tools that compares products/services to competitors
    - - task assignment control & they control methods to complete the task
      - group controls work schedule, budget, hiring/firing of staff
      - group has total responsibility & control over their work
      - group has control over performance appraisals
      - no supervisor -> leader changes based on project
    - - Alternate work schedules
        
        i). Compressed Work Week (CWW) -> increase in job satisfaction, no effect on job productivity & reduced absenteeism
        
        ii). flextime -> increased job satisfaction & job productivity, decreased absenteeism
        
        Research says....flextime has strongest benefit on absenteeism & weakest beneficial effect on self-rated job performance
      - b. job enrichment -> design a job so it provides opportunities for challenge, advancements and other motivating factors to increase worker satisfactions & motivation
      - a. business process reengineering (BPR) -> increasing organizational efficiencies by redesigning orgs financial, communication & other core processes
      - c. job enlargement (vertical loading) -> rich in content, leads to increased job satisfaction AND decreased absenteeism
    - - focusing on communication, decision-making, problem-solving, interpersonal relationships, and other organizational processes that are contributing to performance problems.
    - - provide feedback
      - develop an action plan
      - Data collection -> having employees complete surveys to obtain information on their attitudes, opinions, and perceptions related to work conditions (e.g. supervision, company policies, etc.) .
    - - Design -> envision "what could be"
      - Deploy -> determine "what should be"
      - Discovery -> appreciate "what is"
      - Dream -> "sustain what will be"
- - - - leader-member relations are good,
      - task structure is low,
      - the leader has limited position power.
      - Best outcomes -> in moderately favourable situations
    - - task structure is high
      - leader-member relations are poor
      - the leader has strong position power
      - Best outcomes -> highly favorable or highly unfavorable situations
    - - Leading from the roof-top (high LPC), he is people "people-focused" -> his character is powerful, and charismatic and he looks out at the people and the organization is flat (low structure) -> tell me who is your moderately (mediocre) favorite leader
      - Jekyll appears on the lowly streets as a "fool" who tries to convince the massess of his power by assigning random tasks to everyone -> he doesn't build relationships and tells everyone that in good of bad times he will be triumphant
  - - - need a story for the actual terms??
      - i) idealized influence -> leader's charisma & ability to act as a positive role model
      - ii) inspirational motivation -> the leader's ability to create and communicate a vision for the future that is meaningful
      - iii) intellectual stimulation -> is the leader's ability to stimulate creativity and critical thinking (e.g. training)
      - iv) individual consideration -> the leader's ability to foster each employee's growth by providing personal attention, support, and encouragement.
    - - Defining characteristics of transactional leadership includes;
        
        i) Use of contingent rewards -> by informing staff of tasks & goals to be accomplished to attain the organizational goals
        
        ii. Management-by-exception (MBE) -> refers to how transactional leaders intervene to correct employee mistakes or rule violations (active or passive).
        
        Active MBE -> leaders closely monitor the bxs of employees and take immediate action to minimize potential problems
        
        Passive MBE -> when leaders do not closely monitor employee bxs, and instead take corrective action when mistakes occur
  - - - iv).Participative Leaders -> include subordinates in decision-making (e.g. a group of interns, looking for encouragement or validity from their leader)
        
        Grey's Anatomy, getting everyone to buy into the narrative
      - ii). Directive (Instrumental) Leaders -> leader provides specific guidelines and establish clear rules and procedures -> (e.g. leader tells people what to do)
        
        Coach/Leader that tells people what to do (e.g. Denzel - Remember the Titans)
      - iii).Achievement-orientated leaders -> set challenging goals and encourage higher levels of performance
        
        Get out of my way Leadership (e.g. Wolf of Wall Street)
      - i).Supportive Leaders -> focus on establishing supportive relationships with subordinates (e.g. ????)
        
        Feel Good Leadership -> (e.g. Cheerleader Approach)
    - - ii. subordinate characteristics
      - iii. situation/environmental factors
      - i. leader style
  - - - In-group members have higher levels of job satisfaction, job performance, organizational commitment, and organizational citizenship
- - - - preparing for her world tour fans are pumped as it is expected to be a big money maker to T-Swift and for the economy (economic gain)
      - hiring staff to prepare -> hires Bill Nye the science guy (scientific method) b/c he wants to do time/motion studies which was inspired from T-Swifts big face watch and her strumming style (motion)
      - Bill is using his method to match workers skills with training -> his philosophy everyone which starts with singing kumbayah (cooperation)
  - - - Career Orientation -> managers are career professionals, not owners of units they manage
      - Impersonality -> uniform application of rules, and controls, not according to personalities
      - Authority hierarchy -> positions are organized with a clear chain of command
      - Formal Rules & Regulations -> system of written rules and standard operating procedures
      - Division of labour -> jobs broken down into simple, routine, well-defined tasks
      - Formal Selection -> people selected for jobs based on technical qualifications
  - - - Employees must "dangle the carrot" to motivate you.
    - - Allowing employees to participate in decision-making process
      - this theory is best outcome for employees & organizations**
- - - - ii). limited access
      - iii). cognitive abilities of decision-making
      - i). time restriction
      - how to remember this?? -> Simon loves TLC
    - - decisions are based off "small incremental choices made in response to short-term conditions"
      - decisions made by many individuals OR groups -> constrained by the organization's routines and standard operating procedures
    - - assumes that -> decision-makers choose the optimal alternative by evaluating all possible alternatives in an objective, deliberate, and orderly way
  - - - Research says -> group polarization occurs after group discussions have provided opportunities for social comparison and exposure to persuasive arguments
    - - Sxs of groupthink -> illusions of invulnerability and superior morality, use of collective rationalization, excessive stereotyping, self-censorship, and the presence of self-appointed "mindguards" who shield group members from contradictory information.
      - Ways to reduce groupthink -> remaining neutral in the beginning of a discussion, encouraging members to express their opinions, appointing a member to plav devil's advocate and bringing in outside opinions.
      - risk increases with a strong directive leader, leader is isolated from outside opinions, and important decision are made quickly
- - - - Automaticity is NB for tasks that are performed relatively infrequently and when correct performance is essential because errors can have serious negative consequences.