CRIME AND DEVIANCE

INTERACTIONALISM

GENERAL OVERVIEW


Interactionalists pointed out that many actions are not criminal, but the circumstances in which they take place makes them criminal



Interactionalists became influential as sociologists in the 1970s when many sociologists began rejecting functionalism


Interactionalists rejeter the idea that criminals were bad, or heroes of a working class revolution


They argue that there is no such thing as deviant until an action is labelled. it is a social contact which created deviance


They believe an act must be witnessed and labelled to be called a crime or deviant

GOFFMAN


Social labels affect how we see people, it may be for reasons such as mental illness, that label may influence how others react to them


Non-stigmatised will treat those with a social label as different, they distance themselves from the stigmatised as they view them as 'not like me'


This may result in hate crimes


Those who have been labelled will have to develop strategies to cope with the negative social reactions. For example, people with mental health issues may joke about their illness to warn people

GOFFMAN STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of social dynamics and power relations in shaping individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour


  • Helps explain why some individuals may be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour as a means of achieving their goals and status within a social group

GOFFMAN CRITICISMS


  • Doesnt accurately explain why some individuals with significant social and cultural advantages do not engage in criminal behaviour, while others with minimal advantages do


  • Doesn't consider influences such as behaviour, upbringing and culture

LEMERT


Two categories of deviant- primary and secondary


Primary- the action or experience of deviance, drug misuse


Secondary- the role that the deviant creates for themselves which is a response to be labelled as deviant


Criminal behaviour is often a symptom is deeper social and personal issues, poverty, discrimination, trauma, mental health


Primary- skipping school, vandalism
may be considered normal in certain groups and may not result in negative concequences


Secondary- robbery, assault
secondary deviance is more serious actions that leads to negative concequences

LEMERT STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of social and personal factors shaping individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour


  • Helps to explain why some individuals may be more likely to engage in criminal behaviour as a result of the challenges they face

LEMERT CRITICISMS


  • Doesn't consider influences such as personality, upbringing and cultural values

BECKER


Study in 1963 on marijuana smokers


People may commit acts that define them as deviant


They then gain a social label as being deviant, such as a cannabis smoker


The social label becomes seen as a defining characteristic of a person, known as the master status


If other people recognise their master status, then everything that person does will be seen as the result of that master status


Becker identified a process by which people become confirmed in a deviant career and accept a negative social status

BECKER CRITICISMS


  • Over simplify the complex and varied factors that influence individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour


  • Downplay the role of individual agent and personal choice in these behaviours

BECKER STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of social and cultural definitions and labelling in shaping individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour


  • The labelling process involves 4 stages: the initial deviant act, the reaction of others to the act, the individuals response to this reaction, and the consequences of this response

INTERACITIONALIST CRITICISMS


  • Marxists criticise interactionalis because it overlooks the significance of social structure in the origins in crime


  • Lea and Young- focusing on labelling, interactionalists overlook the point that a lot of crime is committed by people from certain social groups, like the young or working class


  • Young people who are labelled as delinquent tend to go on to commit further crime, this is not clear evidence that their further delinquency was caused by a label


  • Does not explain the beginnings of the first criminal act. before smoking drugs for example, a person must make an active choice to break the law

FEMINISM

GENERAL OVERVIEW


Feminism is a wide range of theories, linked to the assumption that society is dominated by men, and women are expected to live by their rules


Feminist sociologists have agreed that the male point of view has dominated traditional thinking into society and sociology


There is a pattern of lower conviction rates for females, and less involvement in crime and violence


There is also a higher rate of victimisation for crimes such as domestic abuse


Self report studied do not tend to support the view that men and boys commit more crime, but not in the same ratio as for convictions


This suggests that women can hide their evidence of their crime, or are treated more leniently by legal systems

THE CHIVALRY THESIS


The Chivalry Thesis is based on the idea that men protect and look out for women in our culture


Men are socalised to protect women, so male officers and magistrates don't charge or prosecute them

POLLAK


Pollak, who explained women’s crime in terms of traditional sex roles, claimed that women are comfortable with lying

CHIVALRY THESIS CRITICISMS


  • Heidensohn- chivalry thesis perpetrates stereotypical views of gender and doesn’t consider differences in the types and seriousness of crime committed by men and women


  • Doesn't account for other factors such as race and class


  • Feminists- ignores the reality that many womens are victims of violence and abuse, and justice system fails to hold men accountable

SMART


Smart suggested that there might be a double standard in courts when it comes to gender


She refers to a situation where woman who are convicted of offences are seen as unfeminine are treated harshly


They are seen as 'doubly deviant'


For example. partner murder in domestic abuse cases often sees women imprisioned for a long period of time, whereas men are allowed to argue self defence in court


WALKLATE


Walklate points out in cases of rape of women, often the victim is on trial because the opinion of juries and the legal system is that she ‘asked for it’ through her clothing or behaviour.


An example of this is when Lindsey Kushner, a judge, was criticised for suggesting that women need to protect themselves against the threat of being raped while drunk

ADLER


Suggested that there has been an upsurge in female crime and described it as dramatic, although the numbers were relatively small compared to male crime convictions


She attributed this rise in female crime to feminism


She claimed that as women expected equal opportunities with men In the work place, female criminals were demanding more opportunities to commit white collar crime

In 2015, Lancaster University reported on data from CSEW


Violent crime is 60% higher than official statistics suggest, due to a ruling that a person can only be registered as a victim of violent crimes five times.


HEIDENSOHN


Women commit fewer crimes than males, this is the result of patriarchal control of women, who have fewer opportunities and motivations to offend


Domestic control- women are controlled in their own home because they have less freedom. Their time is occupied by housework, and are often denied opportunities to be out at night


Control in public spaces- women are constrained by their fears of sexual violence
For example, men may intimidate women in public spaces in traditionally male environments- clubs and pubs


Employment control- women are less likely to be in high positions of responsibility so theyhave less opportunity to commit crimes such as fraud



CARLEN


Women generally don’t commit crime, they accept the rewards that come from conforming to social norms


The gender deal- women wish to be seen as respectable to gain the benefits that come from being a partner


The class deal- women from working class homes expect to be able to earn a good living from working at a job


Found that many women who offended were victims of abuse by parents of partners


Some women made an active choice to offend without financial support from families, crime was a rational solution to poverty and powerlessness


Female gang members were controlled by males, used to carry drugs or guns- less likely to be stopped and searched

FEMINISM STRENGTHS


  • Most traditional theories focus on why men commit crime, functionalism and Marxism offer little insight into why women commit crime


  • Clear issues of whether theories of male crime apply to women who inhabit different social spheres, feminism attempts to address this


  • Malestream sociology hasn’t focused on female offender patterns andlife experiences of women in the criminal justice system, which offers insight into the criminal careers of women


  • Drawn attention to the fact that male behaviour is problematic for society because men are disproportionately involved in criminal and violent activity


  • Explains why females are often demonised more than males who have committed similar actions

FEMINISM WEAKNESSES


  • Overlooks issues of class, race, age


  • Overlooks the possibility that not all female crime can be excused on the grounds of gender and victimisation.
    Data from the police statistics in America show arrests for domestic violence are around 16-25%

FUNCTIONALISM

GENERAL OVERVIEW


Lombroso - criminality could be linked to physical characteristics, body types and chromosomes


Psychological explainations have gained more credence, for example Eysenck - criminals demonstrated more extrovert tendencies than the general population, probably from parents


Bowlby - juvenile delinquency is caused by maternal deprivation - the emotional trauma when mothers return to work and don't spend much time with their children


Non-sociological theories of crime tend to neglect the social content in which criminal behaviour take place


Sociological theories of crime, look at the relationship between the individual and society, and how social forces have an impact on peoples behaviour

DURKHEIM


Social order depended upon shared values and norms- value consensus


Formal and informal agencies of social control existed to socialise individuals into consensus and steer people away from deviance


Deviance was present in all societies and functioned to benefit society- it acted as an early warning signal that society is malfunctioning and needs social change


Yesterday's deviance frequently becomes todays normality, therefore reducing the potential for conflcit and disorder


He noted anomie was common in modern societies


All societies required devance, however too much deviance suggested a breakdown in social order, and too little suggested an unhealthy totalitarian society

DURKHEIM CRITICISMS


  • Crime is traumatic on individuals, families and communities


  • Victims of crime, or people who fear crime would not agree with Durkheim


  • Box- crime functions for the good of the rich and capitalist class


  • The powerful may manipulate public opinion on crime to divert attention away from the indeuqlaities created by capitalist organisations


  • Anomie is a vague concept and difficult to operationalise

MERTON


Explains the high levels of crime in the USA committed by the poor


American society is based on the 'American Dream'- individuals subscribe to a consensus belief that the USA is an open society in which hard work is rewarded by material success


Strain exists between peoples pursuit of the cultural goal of material success and access to the structural means of achieving this


People under achieve in education and end up in dead end jobs or unemployed


People often experience blocked opportunities and feelings of anomie- alienated and frustrated by the system


Some of them to commit crime to achieve material success


Individuals could respond to the anomie in a number of ways


Conformity- accepting their lot


Innovation- reject the conventional means of acquiring wealth, turn to illegal means, turn to crime


Ritualism- lose sight of goals, carry on in meaningless jobs


Retreatism- rebel and seek to replace the shared goal with alternative, terrorism


Crime committed by the poor are a reaction to the social organisation of capitalist society

MERTON CRITICISMS


  • Over emphasises consensus about cultural goals
    e.g. surveys indicate that the poor don't believe they will achieve material success


  • Some individuals are more motivated by altruism than material success- helping others


  • Doesn't help explain juvenile deliquency- vandalism


  • Marxists- Merton does not deal with the issue of power adequately

ALBERT COHEN


Influenced by Merton


Why young working class people commit acts of juvenile delinquency - gang violence


A subculture exists alongside of the dominant culture of society


Suggests the main goal for most people is status- a feeling of self worth


Respect is the most important goal for young people- material success is out of their reach


Cultural goals shape out behaviour, either conformist or deviant


Young people are socialised to regard status as the most important goal, normally through educational success


Lower class boys are inadequately socialised by there families into the 'correct' norms and values because of deficiencies in their working class culture


Blames the educational system for failing these boys


Schools link status too much with educational success, which provides low self esteem in the boys creating status frustration

COHEN CRITICISMS


  • Willis- 'Learning to Labour', found his lads did not share the same goals as conformist youth- they defined educational failure as success because they wanted jobs in car factories, rejecting the goal of educational qualifications


  • Most delinquents settle down to a life of conformity as they get older


  • Most lower class boys do not turn to juvenile deliquency


  • Generalises working class parents- the fault could lie with the education system and teachers who favour middle class students

MILLER


Rejects Cohens theory


Juvenile delinquency results from an exaggeration of lower working class subcultural values


Manual workers are boring and lack power


Working class workers develop focal concerns to give meaning to their lives as they're looking for excitement


Examples of focal concerns- looking for kicks, looking good, smartness

MILLER CRITICISMS


  • Some working class enjoy their jobs


  • Matza- subcultural theories over predict delinquency as we are all potentially deviant, only a minority become it


  • Over simplify the complex and varied factors that influence how individuals navigate and negotiate social norms and expectations


  • Downplays the role of personal choice in these behaviours

SUTHERLAND


Devance is learned- criminals learn criminal behaviour from other criminals- within family, friends or gangs


Known as differential association theory- deviance is passed on through associated with other deviants



CLOWARD & OHLIN


Combined Merton and Cohens theory


Legitimate opportunity structure- passing exams getting a job


Illegitimate opportunity structure- being in a gang, crime


Access to illegitimate opportunity structure could be unequal, just like legitimate systems


In some areas there are criminal gangs with a deviant route to success, in some areas there arent


Explains why not all working class boys turn to crime



  • criminal subcultures - some areas have established crime culture, crime is usually utilitarian


  • conflict subculture- no established crime culture, young people organise themselves into gangs, non utilitarian crime


  • retreats subculture- failed both legitimate and illegitimate structure and turn to drink and drugs


CLOWARD AND OHLIN CRITICISMS


  • Doesn't explain why people in criminal subcultures dont commit crime, and people in conflict subcultures commit crime


  • Doesn't take into account personality, upbringing and cultural values

HEIDENSOHN STRENGTHS


  • Challenges traditional gender stereotypes


  • Research has shown women are not simply passive victims of crime, but they can be active agents in shaping their own experiences

HEIDENSOHN CRITICISMS


  • Overemphasises the role of gender and ignores class, race and age


  • Difficult to apply ideas in a practical way, as its challenging to identify and address underlying gender based biases and inequalities

CARLEN STRENGTHS


  • Challenges traditional gender stereotypes and assumptions


  • Carlens perspective helps promote a more equal and fair society

CARLEN CRITICISMS


  • Difficult to apply ideas in a practical way, as its challenging to identify and address underlying gender based expectations

CLORWARD AND OHLIN STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of social and economic inequality in shaping individuals likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour


  • Explains why some people turn to crime as a means of achieving their goals, limited opportunities and recourses

SUTHERLAND STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of social interactions and relationships in shaping behaviours


  • Helps explain how criminal behaviour is not an inherent

SUTHERLAND CRITICISMS


  • May oversimplify the complex and varied factors that influence criminal behaviour


  • Downplays the role of personal choice

MARXISM

OVERVIEW


Crime is an inevitable product of capitalism and class inequality generated by the economic system


Explains why crime seems to be a working class phenomenon


Middle class crime - white collar, corporate and state crime, is under policed, under punished and underestimated

GORDON


Capitalism is characterised by class inequalities in wealth and income, poverty, unemployment


Working class crime is a realistic response to these factors of class inequality as criminals are economically deprived and experience envy, frustration and failure


Lack of job satisfaction and power at work- may alienate workers and lead them to commit crime, rape domestic violence


Ideology of capitalism encourages criminal behaviour- competition, consumerism

GORDON STRENGTHS


  • Takes into account the social and economic structures of society and how they shape patterns of crime and deviance


  • Recognises that crime and deviance are not simply individuals actions, but are the result of complex social and economic processes

GORDON CRITICISMS


  • May oversimplify the complexity of crime


  • ignores factors such as individuals personality, family and community

ALTHUSSER


Law is an ideological state apparatus- functions in the interests of capitalist class to maintain class inequality


Manheim- law is mainly concerned with protecting major priorities (wealth, private property and profit)


Criminal law is seen as the product of an alliance between corporate business and the state


Laws have been passed to benefit the working class (trade union rights, and heath and safety) but are weakly enforced or later modified to suit the interests of ruling class

BOX


Ruling class has the power to prevent laws that aren't in their interests from being passed- the criminalisation of breaches of health and safety legislation- death of workers


Law enforcement is selective and favours the rich- tax evasion is rarely prosecuted, but social security fraud always is


CRITICISMS


  • This idea is difficult to demonstrate


  • Ideology is difficult to operationalise


  • Over theoretical, and fails to suggest ways the existence of ruling class ideology could be verified

GRAMSCI (NEO MARXIST)


Hegemony is used to maintain social control


Institutions- legal system, socialises everyone into accepting ruling class idoelogy


Capitalist society causes crime itself, capitalist society is 'crimogenic'


Capitalist society works at the expenses of working class, which causes poverty leading to crime like theft


Working class frustration and alienation under capitalism can lead to violence


Desire to make more money can lead to criminal behaviour among ruling class

CHAMBLISS AND MANKOFF


The law serves to keep working class away from property and land of rich


Ruling class uses the law to protect private property because capitalist exploitation is built upon it


Most of the population have no power or say in creation of law

CHAMBLISS AND MANKOFF STRENGTHS


  • Recognises that laws do not operate in a vacuum, but are shaped by the values and power relations of society in which they exist

CHAMBLISS AND MANKOFF CRITICISMS


  • Tends to overemphasise the role of laws and CJS in shaping definitions of crime and deviance


  • Downplays factors such as social, economic and cultural conditions

MARXISM CRITICISMS


  • Traditional Marxists overlook other effects on crime


  • Assumption that capitalism is crimogenic is rejected by many


  • There is crime in socialist societies such as Cuba, and some capitalist society have low crime rates, Switzerland


  • Feminists- Marxists ignore the rule of patriarchy in rule creation


  • Left realism- focuses too much on corporate crime

POSTMODERNISM

OVERVIEW


Postmodernism arose in 1970s as a rejection of Marxist and Functionalist explainations in society


Modernsists believe society improves through scientific and sociological knowledge


Postmodernists argue multiple versions of the truth exist, with none being more valid


The perspectives of government and lawmakers do not align with the reality experience by people in society


Lawmakers defining crime does not make their view better


Imposing their views limits individual expression and freedom

HENRY AND MILOVANOVIC


The notion of crime should be reassessed because it no longer applies


Definitions of crime are created by one narrow sector of society, and therefore aren't relevant to most people


The notion of social harm is more useful in analysing whether an action is criminal


Harms of repression- when people cannot develop themselves because those in power restrict opportunities
(hate crime and sexual abuse)



Harms of reduction- when one individual experience loss or injury
(violence or theft)

HENRY AND MILOVANOVIC STRENGTHS


  • Explains purposeless crimes, like hate crimes and vandalism


  • Recognises the role of social and cultural factors in shaping what is considered criminal behaviour


  • Helps explain why certain behaviours may be seen as acceptable in some societies

HENRY AND MILOVANOVIC CRITICISMS


  • Difficult to work and conduct research with a definition of crime that is not accepted by official statistics gathering organisations - ONS


  • Difficult to explain or prevent crime is the causes cannot be researched


  • Downplays the role of personal choice and responsibility

LYNG


For many young people. participation in crime is a form of edgework because there is a risk and sense of fear combined with excitement


Edgework- the way people take voluntary social or physical risk


Implies that people enjoy the emotional of danger, so they may participate in extreme sports to enjoy proximity to death

LYNG STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of identify in shaping criminal behaviour


  • Helps explain why certain behaviours may be more common among certain groups of people

LYNG CRITICISMS


  • Neglects the role of biological and physical factors in shaping criminal behavior

BECK


Talked in terms of a 'global risk society'


The media has preyed upon peoples fears so that they have become conscious risks to their way of life


For example, they may fear losing their jobs or paying high taxation


The media fuel these fears by creating 'hate' figure- the idea that migrants steal work


This can create hate crime, which the media can use to sell more media products

BECK STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the increasing interconnectedness of society and the ways this interconnectedness can create new types of risks and vulnerability


  • Helps explain how events and activities in one part of the world can have far reaching consequences for people in other parts of the world

BECK CRITICISMS


  • Overemphasises the role of global risks and neglects other factors


  • Neglects the role of local and national level responses to global risks and the ways these responses can influence the liklihood of global risks

KATZ


Crime is seductive and pleasant for people who are rewarded and excited by it


Criminals seek the sensual experience of crime itself, not material rewards


KATZ STRENGTHS


  • Recognises the role of individual motivates and desires in shaping criminal behaviour


  • Helps explain why certain behaviours may be more common among certain groups of people

KATZ CRITICISMS


  • Downplays the role of structural factors, such as social inequality


  • Neglects the ways in which broader social and cultural forces may influence the likelihood of engaging in criminal behaviour

POSTMODERNIST CRITICISMS


  • Philo and Miller- Postmodernism seems to give people the freedom to behave in ways that are unacceptable as they believe morality is relative


  • Crime is more than a question of respecting other peoples lifestyles, it is a reality that affects lives


  • Its difficult to test the theory empirically, there is little or no research


  • Marxism and Feminism- doesnt explain inequalities of wealth or power relationships based on gender

LEFT & RIGHT REALISM

LEFT REALISM OVERVIEW


Emphasises the structural causes of crime- poverty and inequality


A focus on these issues is necessary to address crime

RIGHT REALISM OVERVIEW


Emphasises individual responsibility for crime and the importance of law enforcement and punishment in controlling crime


Downplays the role of social and economic factors in causing crime

LEA AND YOUNG


Left realists argue relative deprivation causes subcultures and crime


Lea and Young argue that a sense of relative deprivation is a major factor leading to crime


When an individual feels deprived, they can turn to crime to solve the problem


This is not actual deprivation, but the feeling of being deprived relative to someone else triggers this response


This explains why crime occurs in all social groups


Subcultures develop among marginalised groups with their own values differing from mainstream society


These subcultures may reject mainstream societal values and engage in criminal behaviour


They argue consumer culture in modern Britain intensifies feelings of deprivation, leading to cime


Left realists believe criminal subcultures emerge as a response to addressing relative deprivation


They stress the need for a fair and just society

LEA AND YOUNG STRENGTHS


  • It acknowledges the influence of social and cultural factors

LEA AND YOUNG CRITICISMS


  • Oversimplifies the complex and varied motivations behind criminal behaviour


  • Individual characteristics and experiences may contribute to criminal behaviour


  • The theory implies that people of disadvantaged groups are more prone to criminal behaviour- steretypes