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Key Issues in Research and Methods - Coggle Diagram
Key Issues in Research and Methods
Theoretical
Issues
Positivism
Looks at the
institutions
in society -
macrosociology
Use
reliable methods
that give
quantitative data
Say behaviour is influenced by
external social factors
Think sociology should be
scientific
and
analyse 'social facts'
Social facts are things that
affect behaviour
and can be
easily measured
Measure human behaviour using
quantitative data
Use
statistics
to measure the
relationships
between different factors
Interested in
cause and effect
relationships e.g. the factors that cause underachievement in schools
Use sources like
questionnaires
and
official statistics
Objective
and
reliable
Interpretivism
Looks at the
individual
-
microsociology
Believe that you can only really
understand
human behaviour using
empathy
- by putting yourself in
other people's shoes
They think that it's important to uncover and understand the
meaning
individuals give to
their actions
and to
the actions of others
Use methods that let them discover the
meanings, motives
and
reasons
behind
human behaviour
and
social interaction
Reckon that the
scientific
methods used in
positivist
research
don't tell you much
about how
individual people
act in society
Don't believe in the existence of 'social facts' - they think that the findings of research are always
subjective
Say you can't count meanings and opinions and turn them into statistical charts
Sociology isn't scientific
because
humans can't be measured
like ants in an ant farm
People don't always understand questions in questionnaires and they don't always tell the truth
Like to use methods that produce
qualitative data
- they try to understand human behaviour from the point of view of the
individual person
Use methods like
participant observation
and
unstructured interviews
to build up a
rapport
with individuals, so they can produce a valid and detailed picture of what they think
Use
valid methods
that give
qualitative data
Practical
Issues
Time
- some methods need more time
Covert participant observation
takes a
long time
, the researcher has to get into the group they're studying and win their trust before starting the actual research
A
social survey
doesn't need the researcher to participate all the time and the
workload can be shared
in a team
Money
- affects the
length
and
method
of the research
Money is needed to
pay the researcher
, for
transportation
to interviews, and to pay for
resources
like computers
Large-scale social surveys
are
expensive
The 2011 census cost £480 million
A small focus group will cost a lot less
Characteristics and skills of the researcher
It'd be difficult for a
female
researcher to be involved in a participant observation of
monks
in a monastary
Some researchers may be okay with
dangerous situations
and other may prefer to
stay at their desk
and do
detailed analysis
of statistics
Access and opportunity
If researchers
don't have access
to certain groups to carry out interviews or observations then they have to turn to
secondary sources
Ethical
Issues
4 main areas
2)
Avoidance of deception
- Researchers should be open and honest about the study and its implications
3)
Confidentiality
- The details of participants and their actions must remain confidential and private
4)
Avoidance of harm
- Participants shouldn't be physically or psychologically harmed by the research process
1)
Consent
- All participants must have openly agreed to take part
Studies should try to meet these
4 ethical ideals
, some fall
short
and some
methods
deliberately avoid them
Covert Studies
-
Criticised
for Not Getting
Free, Informed Consent
The researcher should get participants'
consent
before they conduct their study
Sociologists should be
open
and
honest
about the work they wish to carry out
It's important that the respondent knows what they're signing up for
People with
learning disabilities
may
not fully understand
what participation would entail
This is problematic
It can be argued that
uninformed consent
isn't really consent at all
Consent can be
difficult to obtain
, especially from
selective groups
( e.g. Scientologists, the Freemasons, gangs) or when the research is about a
sensitive
topic (e.g. crime, sexuality)
Covert methods (e.g. covert participant observation) involve
not telling
the group being studied that they actually are
Often criticised for their
lack of honesty
and he absence of
true informed consent
Covert participant observers argue that to
negotiate access
into
sensitive
or
dangerous
groups such as criminals, the researcher often has to either
pretend to be part of the group
, or not inform the group of the
true purpose
of the study
Humphreys
(1970) - "Tearoom Trade"
Covert observation of
secretive homosexual activity
The group
Men who engaged in homosexual activities in
public places
(public toilets)
They were
secretive
about their activities for
3
main reasons
Homosexuality was
taboo
in mainstream society
Sexual activity in public is
against the law
Some of the men may have been married men leading a
"secret life"
Covert study
Probably wouldn't have gained access to this group if he'd openly and honestly informed them about the nature of the research and then sought their permission
Even if he did, it's likely that they'd have
acted very differently
if they were aware that they were being observed
Enabled him yo gain the
trust
of the group and observe
genuine actions
Others argue that work like Humphrey's shouldn't be conducted, even if it gives valuable insights to sociology
Milgram
-
Criticised
for
Deceiving
Participants
Background
Conducted a series of experiments in which volunteers were told to administer electric shocks to another person (actually an actor) on the other side of a glass screen, when the person failed to give the correct answer in a memory test
Many kept on giving punishment shocks until the actor pretended to pass out
Deception
Lied about the purpose of the experiment - he told volunteers that they were doing an experiment about
memory
The electric shocks
weren't real
- the person who the volunteers were "shocking" was an actor, pretending
Results
Very useful
Showed how people are ready to
obey
authority without
question
Helped people understand how
ordinary people
take part in war crimes and genocide
Wouldn't have worked
if the volunteers
knew
the real purpose of the experiment
If they knew their
obedience
was being tested, they might have deliberately disobeyed
If they knew the shocks weren't real, they wouldn't have behaved in the same way
Had to be dishonest
for the experiment to work at alll
Been
repeated
more recently, but with adjustments to try and reduce the risk of
psychological harm
Many of the participants in Milgram's study showed signs of
distress
during the experiment, and some of them were disturbed by how
easily
he had
manipulated
them
However, he did
debrief
all afterwards so they all
understood
the study, and did
follow-up work
to check on their psychological state
Some saw the experiment as a
valuable learning experience
Right to Confidentially
All respondents taking part must have their
basic right to privacy
valued and
upheld
The
data
gathered from them and their
personal details
mustn't be distributed to anyone
outside
the
research process
When a report is produced, respondents must be made
anonymous
Any descriptions of people, geographical locations and institutions have to be written in a way that prevents readers from easily recognising the participants
False names
may be used - in which case the researcher should
clearly state
, in case someone who
shares
the name is
mistakenly identified
If a researcher
breaches
trust and confidentiality, potential participants will be
put off
taking part in future
Participants must feel they can
trust
the researcher, especially if the research is part of a sensitive nature - e.g. a self-reported crime study or sexual health survey
Do No Harm
Emotional and physical harm is
never acceptable
in research, and work is actively criticised and rejected if it has allowed harm to come to those involved
Researchers studying topics such as
mental health
or
geriatric care
may have contact with
vulnerable groups
, or witness
situations
and
experiences
that cause individuals
harm
- e.g. inappropriate living conditions, or abuse by carers
There's an ethical question as to whether they should
stop
or
suspend
the research in order to
remove
the individual from the dangerous situation
Some topics that are discussed may be
traumatic
for the respondents - they would need to be
informed
of the possible temporary mental and emotional harm before starting the study
It's important to make sure that all consent is
informed
Some
can Justify
Bending
or
Breaking
Ethical Rules
A lot of
good
can come from research
Many can
justify
breaking or slightly bending some of the
ethical rules
- if the data that they'll gather is likely to make a beneficial contribution to society
This justification becomes even stronger if potential ethical problems are minimised - e.g. if there's
minimal harm
and
full confidentiality
, just just a
small bit of deception
Fielding
(1981) in a study of the
National Front
argues that he needed to conduct covert research otherwise he wouldn't have been able to gain access to the group and gather information
"James Patrick"
(1973) was a false name given to a researcher conducting a study on
violent gangs
in Glasgow - to ensure his
own safety
and protection
Wallis
(1977) wasn't entirely
honest
when researching Scientology
He didn't say he was a sociologist when he signed up to a Scientology course
If he had been honest, the Scientologists may have told him to go away
He was also forced to
name
some of his sources, during a
legal battle
between the Church of Scientology and another researcher
This broke the rule on
privacy
and
anonymity
, but he had
no choice