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Santo Celestino Period:5 Digestive and Urinary system - Coggle Diagram
Santo Celestino
Period:5
Digestive and Urinary system
Major functions of the digestive system
Take in food
break it down into nutrient molecules
3.absorb molecules into the bloodstream
4.rib body of any indigestible remains
digestive process
ingestion
: eating
propulsion
: movement of food through the alimentary canal
SWALLOWING
peristalsis: waves of CONTRACTION and RELAXTION
mechanical breakdown
: includes CHEWING, MIXING food with salvia, churning food in stomach and segmentation
segmentation: local constriction of intestine that mixes food digestive juices
digeston
series of cataboluc steps that involves ENZYMES that BREAKDOWN complex food molecules into chemical building blocks
absorption
: passage of digested FRAGMENT from lumen of gi tract into blood or lymph
defection
: elimination of indigestible substance via anus in form of FECES
Peristalsis
pushing it down, so mixing in the mouth to stomach
ADJACENT SEGMENTS OF THE ALIMENTARY CANAL ORANS ALTERNATELY CONTRACR AND RELAX
Segmentation:
NONADJACENT SEGMENTS OF THE ALIGMENTARY CANAL ORGAND CONTRACT AND RELAX
SALIVARY GLANDS
begins breakdown of starch with enzyme amylase
TEETH
Mastication: chewing and tearing
MOUTH DIGESTION
DEGLUTITION(SWALLOWING)
STOMACH
Stomach is temporary storage tank chemical breakdown of protein digestion
converts bolus of food to paste-like chyme
LIVER
digestive function is production of bile - bile fat emulsife
PANCREASE
supplies most enzymes needed to digest chyme, as well as bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid
Digestive processes in the stomach
carriesout breakdown of food
serves as holding area for food
delivers chyme to small intestine
denatures proteins by HCI
pepsin carries out enzymatic digestion proteins - milk protein (casein) is broken down by rennin in infants - results in cruby substance
lipid-soluble alcohol and asprinin are absorbed into blood
only stomach function essentional to life is scretion of intrisic factor for vitamin B12 absorption
B12 needed for reb blood cells to mature, lack of B12 leads to pernicious anemia, treated with B12 injections
BILE :
bile salts: cholestrol dervative that function in fat emulsification and absorption
bilirubin: pigment formed from hem
bacteria break down in intestine to stercobilin that gives brown color of feces
CHOLESTEROL< TRIGLYCERDIES< PHOSPHOLIPIDIS< ELECTROLTES
Endocrine function: secretion of insulin and glucagon by pancreatic islet cells
exocrine function: produce pancreatic juice
Digestive process for SMALL INTESTINE
Chyme from stomach contains partially digested carbohydrates and proteins and undigested fats
MOLILITY OF SMALL INTESTINE
after a meal
segmentation is most comon motion of small intestine
initated by intrinsic pacemaker cells
mizes/moves contents toward ilececal valve
intesity is altered by long and short reflexes and hormones
parasymphatic increase movement, sympathetic decreases it
between meals
peristalis increase initated by rise in hormone motilin in late intestinal phase
meal remanants, bacteria, and debris are moved toward large intestine
complete trip from duodenum to ilem takes ~2 hours
illeocecal valve control
lleocecal sphincter relaxes and admits chyme into large intestine when there is
gastroileal reflex
enhances force of segmentation in ileum and gastrin increases motility of ileum
lleocecal valve flaps close when chyme exerts backward pressure
Large inteitne: no food breakdown oocures except bacteria digest
moves feces to anus and poop
reabsorbe of viatmins made by bacterial flora, water, and electrolytes ( Na and CL-)
• Major functions of the urinary system
Kidney function
.
Regulating total water volume and total solute concentration in water
– Regulating ion concentrations in extracellular fluid (ECF)
– Ensuring long-term acid-base balance
– Excreting metabolic wastes, toxins, drugs
– Producing erythropoietin (regulates blood pressure and renin (regulates RBC
production)
– Activating vitamin D
– Carrying out gluconeogenesis, if neede
Kidnets clease blood and adjut its copostion so it has a rich blood supply
– Arterial flow: renal → segmental → interlobar → arcuate → cortical radiate (interlobular)
– Venous flow: cortical radiate → arcuate → interlobar → renal veins
Urine flow
– Renal pyramid → minor calyx → major calyx → renal pelvis → ureter
• Major organs of the digestive system
Alimentary canal (gastrointestinal or GI tract or gut)
pharynx
Food passes from mouth into oropharynx and into laryngopharynx
allowes for food, fluids, and air to pass
rxternal muslce layers conisists of two skeletal muslce layers
esophagus
flat muscular tube that runs from larynogpharynx to stomach - is collapse when not involved in food propulsion
gastroesophageal (cardiac) sphincter surrounds cardial orifice
keeps orifiifce closed when food is not swalled
mucus cells on both sides of sphinter help protect esophagus from acid reflux
Mouth
stomach
Stomach is temporary storage tank chemical breakdown of protein digestion
converts bolus of food to paste-like chyme
WHEN EMPTY, STOMACH MUCOSA FORMS MANY FORMS MANY FOLDS CALLED RUGAE
Major regions of the stomach:
cardial part (cardia): surrounds cardial orifice
fundus: dome-shaped region beneath diaphragm
body: midportion
pyloric part: wider and more superior portion of pyloric region, antrum, narrows into pyloric canal that terminates in pylorus - pylorus os contunous wuth duodenum through pyloric vavle (spincter controlling stomach emptying)
GROSS ANATOMY OF THE STOMACH
greater curvature: convex lateral surface of stomach
lesser curvature: concavemedial surface of stomach
Microscopic Anatomy of stomach:
muscularis externa has circularand longitudinal smooth muscle layers, as well as extra third layer, the oblique (diagonal) layer
together, smotth muscles allow stomach not only to churn, mix, and move chyme, but also to pummel it, whcihc increases physucal breakdown, and ram into small intestine
mucosa layer is also modified
consists of simple columnar epithelium entirely composed of mucous cells
secrete two-layer coat of alkaline mucus - surface layer traps bicharbonate-rich fluid layer that is beneath it
dotted with gastric pits, which lead into gastric glands- gastric glands produce gastric juice
types of gland cells
glands in fundus and body produce most gastric juice
glands include secretory cells
mucous neck cells - secrete thin, acidic mucus of unknown function
parietal cells - secretion include
hydrochloric acid (HCI) - pH 1.5-3.5; denatures protein, activates pepsin, breaks down plant cell walls, and kills many bacteria
intrinsic factor - glycoprotein required for absorption of vitamin B12 in small
chief cells - secretion include
pepsinogen: inactive enzyme that is activated to pepsin by HCI and by pepsin itself (a positive feedback mechanism)
lipases
enteroendocrine cells
secretes into lamia propria
ACT AS PARACRINES - Serotonin and histamine
HORMONES - somatostatin (also acts as paracrine) and gastrin
Mucosal barrier
harsh digestive conditions require stomach to be protected
mucosal barrier protects stomach and is created by three factors
thick layer of bicarbonate-rich mucus
damage epithelial ells are quickly replaced by division of stem cells - surface cells replaces 3-6 days
small intestine
Subdivisions:
duodenum: most retroperitoneal- cerves around the head of pancrease
jejunum: attached posteriorly by mensentery
lleum: attached posteriorly by mesentery, joins large intestine t ilececal valve
Modification of small intestine for absorption- abrea for nuturents absorption
vili: fingerlike projections of mucosa, conatains dense capillary bed and lymphatic capillary called a lacteal for absorption
microvili - cytoplasmic extensions of mucosal cell that give fuzzy appeasences called brush border that contains membrane enzymes brush border enzymes, used for final carbohydrate anf protein digestion
large intestine
three futures
teniae coli: three bands of longtuinal smooth muscle in mucularis
haustra: pocketlike sacs caused by tone of teniae coli
epoploc appendages: fat-filled punches of visceral peritoneum
Subdivisions of large intestine
Cecum: first part of large intestine
Appendix: masses of lymphoid tissue
▪ Bacterial storehouse capable of recolonizing gut when necessary
▪ Twisted shape of appendix makes it susceptible to blockages
Colon: has several regions, most which are retroperitoneal (except for transverse and sigmoid regions)
▪ Ascending colon: travels up right side of abdominal cavity to level of right kidney – Ends in right-angle turn called right colic (hepatic) flexure
▪ Transverse colon: travels across abdominal cavity – Ends in another right-angle turn, left colic (splenic) flexure
▪ Descending colon: travels down left side of abdominal cavity
▪ Sigmoid colon: S-shaped portion that travels through pelvis
Rectum: three rectal valves stop feces from being passed with gas (flatus)
Anal canal: last segment of large intestine that opens to body exterior at anus
▪ Has two sphincters
– Internal anal sphincter: smooth muscle
– External anal sphincter: skeletal muscle
anus
Accessory digestive organs
gallbladder
chief function is storage of bile
thin walled muscular sac on ventral side of liver
functions to store and concentrate bile by absorbing water and ions
destive glands
pancrease
supplies most enzymes needed to digest chyme, as well as bicarbonate to neutralize stomach acid
Exocrine functions produce: pancretic juice
Composition of pancreatic juice
watery alkaine solution (pH 8) to neutralize acidic chyme coming from stomach
Endocrine function: secretion of insulin and glucagon by pancreatic islet cells
liver
digestive function is production of bile - bile fat emulsifer
gross anatomy
largest gland-
consits of four lobes: right, left, caudate and quadrate
bile ducts
common hepatic duct leave liver
cystic duct connects to gallbladder
bile duct formed by union of common hepatic cystic ducts
Salivary glands
Function of saliva:
Cleanses mouth
dissolves food chemicals for taste
moistens food, compacts into bolus
begins breakdown of starch with enzyme amylase
Two types of secretory cells:
serous cells: produce watery secretion, enzymes, ions, bit of mucin
mucous cells : produce mucus
tongue
Tongue: occupies floor of mouth
functions include
gripping, repositioning, and mizing of food during chewing
formation of bolus, mixture of food and saliva
initation of swalling, speech, and taste
Lingual frenulum: attachment to floor of mouth
Teeth
Teeth lie in sockets in gum-covered margins of mandible and maxilla
Mastication: chewing and tearing
dental formula - 20 deciduous teeth and baby teeth , 32 deep-lying permanent teeth
TEETH CONSIST OF
incisors: chisel shaped for cutting
canins: fanglike teeth that tear or pierce
premolars: bicuspid: broad crowns with rounded cusps used to grind or crush
molars: grindeds
TOOTH STRUCTURE
crown: exposed gingiva (gum)
Root: nerves into the jaw
Mouth
oral (buccal)cavity - walls of mouth lined with stratitfed squamous epithelium
lips and cheeks: lips (labia), composed of fleshy orbicularis oris muscle
Labial frenulum: median attachment of each lip to gum
Palate
palate from the roof of the mouth and has two disticts parts
!. hard platate- from by palatine bones and palatine prceeses of maxillae with midline ridge called raphe
soft palate fold formed mostly of skeletal muscle
Uvula: fingerlike prjection that faces downward from free edge of soft palate
Peritoneum: serous membranes of abdominal cavity
visceral peritoneum: membrane of external surface of most digestive organs
Parietal peritoneum: membrane that lines body wall
peritoneal cavity-
fluid-filled space between two peritoneums
fluid lubricates mobile organs
Peritoneum: serous membranes of abdominal cavity consists of
VISCERAL PERITONEUM: membrane on external surface of most digestive organs
PARIETAL PERITONEUM: membranes that lines body wall
Intrapertional peritoneal organs: orange located within the peritonem
retroperitoneal organs: located outside, or posterior to, the peritneunm- includes most pancreas duodenum and parts of large intestine
Mesentery: double layer of peritoneum, layers are fused back to back
extends from body wall to digestive oragns
provides rountes for blood vesseles, lymphatics, and nerves
holds organs in place and also stores fat
Mesenteries extend from curvatures and tether stomach to other digestive organs
lesser omentum - runs from lesser curvature to liver
greater omentum- drapes inferiorly from greater curavutr over intestine, spleen, and transverse colon, blends with mesocolon, mesentery that anchors large intestine to abdominal wall, contains fat deposits and lymph nodes
circular layer thickens to FORM SPINCHTER
• Major organs of the urinary systems
Kidneys:
!. renal cortex: granular-apperaly superficial region
renal medulla: deep to cortex, compsed of cone-shaped medullary (renal ) pyramids
broad base of pyramids, pints internally
renal pyramids are sepreated by renal colum, inward extensions of cortical tissue
lobe: medullary pyramid and its surrounding cortical tissue, about eight lobes per kidney
renal pelivs
funnel-shaped tube contious with ureter
ninor calyces - cup-shaped arease that collect urine draining from pyramidal papillae
major calyces
areas that collect urine from minor calyces
empty urine into renal pelvis
Ureters : transport urine from kidneys to urinary bladder
enter base of bladder throigh posterior wall
Urinary bladder: temporary srorage reservior for urine
muscular sac for temporary storage of urine
retropetinal on pelvic floor
prostate infeore to bladder neck
anterior to vagina and uterus
Urethra : transports urine out of body
muscular tube that drains urinary bladder
• Digestive enzymes (including names and functions)
carbohydrates
glucose and galactose are absorbed via contransport with Na+
fructose passes via facilated diffusion
all monosacchardes leave the epithelial cells via facilated diffusion, enter the capillary blood in the villi, and are transported to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
CARBOHYDRATES = SUGAR
Salivary amylase, pancreatic amylase , brush bodered enzymes in small intestine (dextrinase, glusose, amylase, lactase, maltase, and sucrease)
Amino acid are absorbed via contrasport with NA +
some dipeptides and tripeptides are absorbed via contransport H+ and hydrolyzed to amino acids within the cells
infrequenylu, transctosis of small peptides ocure
amino avids leave the epithelial cells by faciliated diffusuion, enter the capillary blood in the vivli, and are transpoted to the liver via the hepatic portal vein
Pepsin (stomach glands in presence of HCI)
Pancreatic enzymes (trypsin, chymotryptrpsion, carboxypeptidase)
brush border ensymes ( aminopeptides, carboxypeptidase and dipeptidase)
Fatty absorption
fatty acids and monoglycerides enter the intestinal cells via diffusuin
fatty acids and monoglycerides are recombined to form triglycerides and then combined with other lipids and proteins within the cells, the resulting chylomicrons are extruded by exocytosis
the chyomicornes wither the lacteals of the villi and are transported by the systemic circulation via the lymph in the thoracic duct
some short-shain fatty acids are absorbed move into the capillary blood in the vili by diffusion and are transported bt the liver via the hopatic portal vein
lingual lipase (minor impotance), gastric lipase, emulsfication by detergent action of bile salts ductued in from the liver, pancreatic lipases
Units enter intestinal cells by active transport via membranse carriers
units are absorbed into capillary blood in the vili and transported to the livr via the hepatic portal vein
pancreatic ribonulease an deoxyribonuclease
brush border enzymes
• Location of digestion and absorption of each macromolecule
Proteases (for protein) : scretation in inactive from to precent self-digestion
amylase (for carbohydrates)
lipases (for lipids)
mucleases (for nucleic acids)
FAT DIGESTION
unemulsified triglycerides to monoglycerides and fatty acids
MOUTH , STOMACH, SMALL INTESTINE
Protein digestion
proteins
large polypeptides
small polypeptides small peptides
amino acids (some dipeptodes and tripeptides)
Stomach, small intestine
Nucleic acid
nucleic acids
pentose sugars N-containing bases, phosphate ions
SMALL INTESTINE
Carbohydrates digestion
startch and disaccharides
ologosacchardies and disacchardes
lactosea and maltose and sucrose and
galactose, glucose, fructose
site of action is mouth, small intestine
Vitamin absorption
= small intestine
Absorption of electroytes
= small intestine
iron and calcium are in duodenum
Absorption of water- in small instestine
• Layers of the GI tract (including stomach)
HISTOLOGY of ALIMENTARY CANAL:
Mucosa: *
Tunic layer that lines the lumen(opening)
Functions: different layers perform one or all three
secretes mucus, digestive enzymes and hormones
absorbs end products of digestion
protects againsts infectious disease
Submucosa:
consists of areolar connective tissue
contains blood and lymphatic vessles, lymphoid follicles, and submucosal nerve plexus that supply surrounding GI tract issues
has abindant amount of elastic tissue that help organs to regain shape Muscularis externa:
muscle layer responsible for segmentation and peristalsis * contains inner circular muscle layer and outer longitudinal layer - circular layer thinckes to FORM SPINCHTERS
Serosa:
outermost layer, which is made up of the visceral peritoneum
• Nephron anatomy and physiology
Nephrons : stuctural and functional units that forms urine in the kidneys
renal corpuscle
renal tubule
Renal tubule and collecting tubes
Single layer of epithelial cells, but each region has its own unique histology and function
proximal convoluted tubule
cubodial cells with dense mircovilli that from brih border- increase surface area and large mitochondria ,
reabsoption and secretion
nephron loop
formerly called LOOP of HENLE
descending limb, is continuous with proximal tubule
distal portion also called descending thin limb, simple squamous epithelium
Ascending limb
thick ascending limb
cuboidbal or columnar cells
distal convoluted tubule
cubodial cells
function more in secretion than reabsorption
confined to cortex
collecting ducts
two cell types
principal cells
sparse with short microvilli
maintain water and NA+ balance
Intercalated cells
Cubiodal cells with abundant microvilli
twotypes of intercalated cells
A and B: both help maintain acid-base balance of blood
collecting ducts receive filrate from many nephrons
run through medullary pyramids - give pyramids their striped appearance
ducts fuse together to deliver urine trough paillae into minor calyces
Renal corpuscle
glomerulus -
tuft of capillaries composed of fenestrated endothelium - highly porpus capillaires - FILTRATE FROMATION- forms the urine
glomerular capsule
also called Bowman's capsule: cup-shaped, hollow structure surrounding glomerulus
two layers -
Partietal layer: simple squamous epithelium
Visceral layer : clings to glomerular capollaiers, branching epithelail podocytes
extensions terminate in foot processes that ling to basement membrane
filtration slits between foor processes allow filtrate to pass inot capsular space
Physiology kidney
Fliters blood
Urine is produce from filtrate
Steps of filtration
Tubular Secretion
tubular secrtion is reabsorption in reverse
occurs almost completely PCT
selected substaance are moved from peritublar capilaries through tubule cells out into filtrate
tubular secretion
disposing of substance, such as drugs or metabolites, that are bound to plasma proteins
eliminating undersibrble substance that were passively reabsorbed
ridding body of excess
controlling blood pH by altering aount of H+ or HCO- in urine
Tubular reabsorption
tubular reabsorption: quickly reclaims most contect and returns to blood
selective transeptithelial process
almost all organix nutrients are reabosred
water and ion reabsorption is hormonnally regulated and adjusted
includes active and passive tubular reabsorption
substance can follow two routes
ttrancellular
paracellular
Glomerular filtration
glomerular filtration is a passive process - no metabolic engery required
hydrostatic pressure forces fluids and solutes trhough filtration membranse
no reabsorption into capillariers of glomerulus occurs
• Disorders of the digestive and urinary system
cholecystitisL an inflammation at gall bladder, gallstones
Gastroesophagel refluz diease (GERD)
a chronic diease when esphagealsphtne relaxes on its own ,surgery
inflammatory bowel diease (IBD)
a chronic complex intestinal condtinna that causes inflamtion in digestive tract, includes crochels , medication, antibiotics
Peptic ulcers -
sores that devloped in the linign of the stomach, lifestyle change , bactria infection
Colon diease:
polups-growth:
spastic colon
Bladder cancer a lump tumor, body cells grow out at control, radtion
UTI: found in women de to infection in the urethra
Kidney stone: minral concentration in the kidneys, something wrong with filtration