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Cybercrime: technology-depended and –facilitated crimes (teknologi…

- - - - Webkamera og livestreaming
        Livestreaming av seksuelle overgrep mot barn fortsetter å utvikle seg, og klienter kan bestille og betale online for kriminelle tjenester som tilpassede seksuelle overgrep mot barn på nett "på forespørsel"
- - - - For doxxing-ofre skaper utgivelsen av de-anonymiserende, de-tilslørende eller delegitimerende informasjon et spekter av fremtidig skade – et spekter som doxxing deler med andre informasjonsoverførte skader, inkludert deling av seksuelle bilder uten samtykke.
        -> I denne forbindelse kan doxxing følge følgende «livssyklus»: (1) drivkraften til å initiere skade der tidligere privat PII er offentlig offentliggjort; (2) mottak av denne offentlig avslørte PII av andre aktører, som kan bruke den nylig avslørte informasjonen til å skade offeret; og (3) spredning av PII-bruddet, som kan invitere til ytterligere skader eller brudd mot offeret.
        -> Denne spredningen av PII har kanskje ikke noe forutsigbart endepunkt, ettersom den utbedres og omformes i en syklisk repetisjon av skade.
        -> gjentakelse av avsløring som kan oppstå – og oppleves – gjentatte ganger.
      - Førsteordens skader representerer direkte tilbakeslag for et individs interesser og kroppslige integritet. Derimot er andreordens skader tilbakeslag for enkeltpersoners sikkerhetsinteresser.
- - - - • Technology-based abuse
        • Cyberstalking, monitoring, and online harassment (and humiliation)
        • Online interactions are subjective – difficult to capture -> overvåking kan være greit frem til det går over grensen - uklart hvor den grensen går før det går over til å være abuse
        • For survivors: unclear when monitoring behavior becomes abusive
        • For law enforcement: the severity of the harassment and the danger might be unclear
        • Technology-facilitated coercive control: controlling intimate partnerships and technology
      - • Stalking (definisjonen ulik fra land til land - avhengig av land)
        • A spectrum of behaviors defined on local/national level
        • Relaying on the victims’ sense of fear
        • Often coincides with intimate partner violence: indicates abuse intensity
        • Direct and by third-parties
        -også kjønnet kriminalitet - ofte kvinner utsatt)
        -stalking først i lovverket i norge 2016
    - - • Direct stalking and technology-based stalking and harassment was commonly part of the pattern of coercive control
      - • Context is important for both stalking and technology-based abuse
        • Frequency, duration, history of abuse, and patterns of behavior
        • Acceptable actions in one relationship may be abusive in another
      - • Pattern-based vs. incident-based assessments
        • A more complete picture when focusing on patterns
        • Incidents may not be abusive - må se hele konteksten
      - • Still a limited developing understanding of technology-based abuse
        • Differences in ways this was revealed in the study (asking directly about technology vs. general abuse/stalking)
      - • Important to consider the relationship between technology-based abuse with risk for future violence and homicide
  - - - • Terrorism and violent extremism is about being noticed, but also about being understood
        • Terrorist attacks: draws attention to target choice, sends a message
        • Terrorist campaigns: legitimize, rationalize and advertise their actions through speech, text and visuals
      - • ‘Violent extremism’
        • “The belief that an in-group’s success or survival can never be separated from the need for violent action against an out-group” (Berger, 2018 in Scrivens & Conway, 2020)
        • Here: right-wing extremists
      - • Terrorism
        • “Violence – or, equally important, the threat of violence – used and directed in pursuit of, or in service of, a political aim” (Hoffmann, 2006 in Scrivens & Conway, 2020)
        • Here: violent jihadists
      - Extreme ideologies and technology (Scrivens and Conway, 2020)
        Here: the use of media tools directly by terrorists
        
        • Low-tech media tools: pre-media
        • Orally
        • Wall paintings (murals, graffiti) -> mitt sted- kom deg vekk (gjenger)- politisk/støtte/motstand - å nå flere mennesker
        
        • Low-tech: Print and photocopying - klistremerker
        • Newspapers, magazines, and billboards
        • To expand their ‘fan’ bases, recruit, gain support in broader publics
        • The beginning of personal media use for campaigning
        
        • High-tech: sound and vision
        • Radio
        • Film and television
        -mer intensitet kommer frem visuelt/lyd
        
        • High-tech communication tools: online multimedia
        
        • Web 1.0: bulletin board systems, websites, and online forums
        • The extreme right with bulletin boards since mid-1980s
        • 1990ies: one-stop shops for information about the groups
        • Information, financing, networking, recruitment, and information gathering
        • 2000s: interactivity through online forums
        • Forums controlled by the groups: a sense of authenticity and exclusivity
        • Extreme right still use both general and dedicated online forums
        
        • Web 2.0: digital video and social media
        • Fits the performative nature of terrorism
        • Early jihadi videos: political statements, leaders, attack footage, ‘pre-martyrdom’ videos, instructional videos, memorial videos, ‘music’ videos, beheadings
        • All consistently and systematically branded; graphic logos are used; offer different formats
        • IS ‘Twittersphere’ on top in 2014/2015
        • Today: IS on Telegram (encrypted messaging application with ‘closed’ groups)
        • Right-wing: sympathizers on public platforms, but groups are rather hidden (8chan, Discord) or official websites
- - - - • Doxxing and its harms are sped up by digital media platforms (Anderson & Wood, 2022)
        • Social media algorithms and social media buttons
      - • Technology-based abuse and stalking enters everywhere (Messing et al., 2020)
        • Difficult to hide: Intruding their everyday lifes and social lifes to a much larger extent
        • Enables surveillance and harassment after breakup
      - • New form for entrepreneurship in drug markets (Flamand & Décary-Hétu, 2020)
        • Anonymity; ability to advertise products and services; reach a large pool of customers
      - • CEM: to live the experience without being there, first-person point-of-view (Broadhurst, 2020)
        • Also: increases the anonymity, accessibility, effectivity
      - • New interaction order of terrorism and violent extremism: global reach (Scrivens and Conway, 2020)
        • New intensity
    - - • Sexual exploitation in technology-based abuse (Messing et al., 2020)
      - • New open and closed drug markets (Flamand & DécaryHétu, 2020)
        -> New and different challenges; skill sets; different sollutions
      - • CEM: Webcamming and livestreaming, virtual reality, marketplaces on darkweb (Broadhurst, 2020)
        -> Customized material
      - • ‘Convergence culture’ of terrorism/violent extremism - consumers of information among different media contents (Scrivens and Conway, 2020)
    - - • Online interaction is subjective (Messing et al., 2020)
        • Social surveillance: How much is ok? How much stalking? How much monitoring? When to react (or report)?
      - • CEM (Broadhurst, 2020)
        • People do not store the material (order and pay online, ‘on demand’)
        • Virtual reality: to live the experience without being there, first-person point-of-view
        • A variation of offenders
      - • Responses to CEM
        • International law enforcement cooperations
        • Enhancing forensic data capture of CEM: comparison software
        • CEM libraries: tracking images and identifying victims and offenders
    - - • Technology firms construct gatekeeping mechanisms for abusive online content (Messing et al., 2020)
        • Legal protection in online spaces? When other ways of protecting the survivors come short (legal system, shelters)
      - • Technology as an important factor for success
        • Drug markets: New advantages, new resources (for anonymity, etc.), more available for entrepreneurs, easier to cooperate on a distance (a system, third-party) (Flamand & Décary-Hétu, 2020)
        • Terrorism: Iss ‘success’ online (Scrivens and Conway, 2020)
        • Steady stream of online activities, easy digital video composition and fast download
        • Own websites  mainstream public social media  closed encrypted messaging applications
      - • Technology-harm relations (Anderson & Wood, 2022)
        • Technology used to harm (instrumental) – technology are harmful to use (generative)
        • Technology used by designer’s intent (utility) – technology used not as intended (technicity)
      - • The use of technology and media platforms depend on objectives and context (Scrivens and Conway, 2020)
        • IS turn to encrypted platforms, while right-wing extremists tone down their rhetoric to not be banned
        • Variations of context: technological, social, cultural, political, etc.