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Leadership: Individual given the task of directing task-relevant group…
Leadership: Individual given the task of directing task-relevant group activities
Inside-the-head
Great Man/Woman Theory: Leaders are born, not made
Leaders possess certain personal qualities or exceptional abilities, or had a galvanising experience
Use case studies (biographical accounts) of great leaders in history to identify attributes
Trait theory: Highlights specific physical or psychological characteristics that are associated with leadership
Height, appearance (the perception of how they look), the way they speak
Intelligence
Personality traits
Motivation (e.g. high need for power)
Trait approach
Literature review found common traits: Self-confidence, integrity (high moral standards), emotional stability (low N), achievement orientation, alertness (able to spot important things taking place in the environment), adaptive
Criticism:
Low Correlations, especially when using specific traits
Issue with specificity matching (e.g. self-confidence is an extremely specific trait, but leadership is a complex thing, as such the correlation is very weak
Simplistic view (did not consider situational factors)
Deterministic, which is not conducive for leadership development
Broad trait approach: To address the issue of specificity matching by using broad traits (Big-5)
Meta-analysis of Big-5 and leadership:
O = .24
C = .28
E = .31
A = .03
N = -.24
Multiple correlation (combining all 5 traits) = .48
The multiple correlation is stronger, but it ultimately does not tell us anything. All we can say is that leadership is related to personality.
Observable behaviours/Behavioural approach: Focus on observable behaviours displayed by leaders (leadership can be trained and modelled
Ohio State Studies: Focus on leadership behaviours
Gathered 1800 leader behaviours through self-report and observations and narrowed them into 2 dimensions:
Initiating Structure (IS) --> Task-oriented
Focus on task completion
More related to performance
Consideration (C) --> Relationship-oriented
Leader shows concern for feelings, attitudes, and needs of followers
More related to satisfaction
Developed Leader Behaviour Description Questionnaire
Frequency scale as response format
Measuring IS:
Lets group members know what is expected of them
Encourages the use of uniform procedures
Tries out ideas on the group
Measuring C:
Does little things to make it pleasant to be a member of the group
Puts suggestions made by the group into operation
Looks out for the personal welfare of group members
University of Michigan studies: Focus on leadership behaviours, specifically on interaction dynamics between leaders and groups
2 dimensions:
Task-oriented (production/job-oriented)
More related to task performance
Relationship-oriented (employee/people-oriented)
Leader shows concern for feelings, attitudes, and needs of followers
More related to satisfaction
Relationship-oriented leadership is more effective
Participative behaviour is also important (allowing subordinates to participate in decision-making and encourages more two-way interaction)
Dealing with situations/contingency approach: The Vroom-Yetton Model
Leaders are seen as decision makers; what makes a good leader is how they make decisions
Decision making styles:
Autocratic (making the decision yourself)
Individual consultation (consult individual followers and then making the decision yourself)
Group decision (group consensus)
Which style the leader adopts depends on various situational factors
Situational factors:
High quality decisions
Requiring subordinates' acceptance
Subordinates' concern of organisational goals
Conflict among subordinates
If decision is important and subordinates have important information that the leader does not, autocratic decision is inappropriate
Interacting with followers
Leader-Member Exchange Theory (LMX): The focus is not on the leader, but on the quality of the interactions between the leader and their subordinates
Leadership in a
dyadic perspective
: Leaders form multiple dyadic relationships with their subordinates
In-group: Subordinates that are trusted, getting more attention, and receive special privileges; research shown members are more likely to remain in the organisation
Good leaders maximise the number of in-group relationships with their subordinates; how do leaders manage different subordinates
Out-group: Leaders interact with subordinates based on position power; higher turnover
LMX quality (
as perceived by the subordinates
) influences work performance, loyalty, satisfaction, and motivation
Measured by LMX 7 for both supervisors and subordinates (supervisors would need to answer the same item multiple times for each of their subordinates)
Captures the phenomenon that leaders
do not lead uniformly
: You need to lead different followers differently if you want to succeed
This is not saying what leader behaviours would yield higher LMX or how to deal with different types of subordinates
Criticism: Does not elaborate on discrepancies found between supervisor and subordinate in perceive LMX (leaders may think that they are doing well, but the subordinates may not agree)
Life cycle of a leader-follower relationship: Relationship between leader and follower begins tentatively and either evolves into a more trusting (in-group) relationship or fixed at the initial stage (out-group)
New-Genre Leadership Theories: Addresses leadership from the Great Man/Woman approach, but more systematic than using biographical data.
Focuses on the shift from transactions between leaders and followers to how leaders influence and change followers
Charismatic Leadership Theory: Leaders possess unique personal qualities that inspire and captivate followers
Typical traits:
High need for power
Self-confident
Strong convictions
Typical behaviours:
Sets an appealing vision
Gain followers' confidence with impressive behaviours
Set ideological goals and urge followers to move away from status quo
Display confidence in followers' ability in achieving goals
Inspirational in speeches and writings
Dark side:
Create unrealistic visions
Lack of genuine concerns for people's welfare
Promote but may not implement a vision
Defensive about mistakes
No care about sustainability of leadership
At the end of the day, charismatic leaders care about themselves and about being followed more
Transformational leadership theory: Points out the difference between transformational leadership, charismatic, and transactional leaders
Transactional leaders:
Clarification of work goals
Motivate followers by means of tangible transactions (e.g. money)
A form of path-goal leadership (dictates the goal and the way to attain the goal)
Can be effective for task-completion
Charismatic leaders:
Idealised influences (impression management)
Inspirational (arousing emotions in the followers)
Similarity: Both display charismatic behaviours
Differences:
Interacting with followers --> Charismatic leaders emphasise loyalty (reliance) (more one-way relationship) while transformational leadership emphasises empowerment
Inspiring through different means --> Charismatic through personal charm while transformational leaders inspire by setting clearer and more concrete goals that are achievable
Sustainability --> Charismatic leadership ends with the leader, while goals can be passed on in transformational leadership
Transformational leaders:
Ability to transform their followers
Charismatic (but there's more!)
Enables intellectual stimulation and growth in their subordinates and individual concern
Activates higher-order needs (self-actualisation)
Empowerment at the end (eventually, subordinates can become the second generation of transformational leaders)
Multi-factor Leadership Questionnaire: Measures various aspects of leadership
Optimal leaders use
both transactional and transformational leadership styles
(but more focus on transformational leadership styles)
5 Is in transformational leadership (IABIMISIC):
Idealised attributes (e.g. determined, clear vision)
Idealised behaviours (e.g. takes a stand on difficult issues)
Inspirational motivations (e.g. provides followers with meaning)
Intellectual stimulation (e.g. encourages creative thinking)
Individualised consideration; considers individual needs (e.g. provide growth opportunities)
Commercial product to indicate a person's strengths and weaknesses in leadership
Self ratings +
other people's ratings
:
MLQ 360 (evaluations of the leader by others)
MLQ Team (evaluations of the leader by their team)
Full range theory of leadership
Full range theory of leadership latest (+ Authentic leadership)
Meta-analysis with DVs:
Follower job satisfaction
Follower leader satisfaction
Follower motivation
Leader job performance
Group or organisation performance
Rated leader effectiveness
Both styles are equally effective ultimately
For specific DVs:
Transformational leadership is more effective for follower satisfaction with leader and rated leader effectiveness
Transactional leadership is more effective in leader job performance and follower job satisfaction
More recent approaches
Authentic leadership
Traits:
Being true to oneself and to others (no impression management or social monitoring; authentic leaders behave the same way with or without monitoring)
Ethical and moral
Consistency of values and behaviours, including personal life
Transparent relationship (open to sharing information)
Positive self-concept, emotional intelligence, integrity, continual self-reflection
Interpersonal effects:
Higher leader-member relationship quality
Higher level of trust
Predictable follower behaviours (because the leader is consistent with their behaviour, their followers become more consistent)
Magnify the effect of leadership interventions
Destructive leadership: Leaders that violate the interests of the organisation
These leaders
can be effective
, they just are destructive in that they go against organisational goals
Traits (TSD):
Tyrannical (identifies with organisational goals but achieves them through manipulating subordinates)
Supportive-disloyal (support subordinates but violate organisational goals)
Derailed (counterproductive and abusive)
The toxic triangle: 3 factors that enable the emergence of destructive leadership
Destructive leaders: Charismatic, narcissistic, power-hunger, ideology of hate
Susceptive followers: People who are vulnerable
Conformers: Followers with unmet needs, low self-evaluation, and low maturity
Colluders: Followers with ambitions, bad values, and similar worldviews as the leader, who would team up with the leader
Conducive environments: Instability, perceived threat, lack of checks and balances (there is a need for direction)
Abusive supervision: Non-physical forms of hostility or aggression carried out by managers against employees who directly report to them (can be reduced by training programmes)
Followership theory: Great leadership is also due to good followers
Leader behaviours are romanticised and overattributed
Servant leadership: Leaders working as servants
Listening, empathy, empowerment
Improve well-being of followers
Leader humility
Studied in Asian contexts
Shared leadership: How leadership can be shared among a small group
Group members as leaders, team management
Effective organisational leadership:
Interpret the meaning of events
Create agreements on objectives and strategies
Formulate task commitment and optimism
Build mutual trust and cooperation
Shape collective identity
Organise and coordinate activities
Promote collective learning
Obtain resources and support
Develop and empower people
Promote social justice, ethicality, and morality
Effective leadership: When a leader changes a follower's behaviour and results in both the leader and the follower feeling satisfied and effective
Motives for leading
Affective-identity: Desire for control
Instrumental: Personal benefits of becoming a leader
Social-normative: Duty to lead and honour and privilege
