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Earth life support systems, Glacial period = low temp --> freezing of…

- - - - Photosynthesis - Done by plants/plankton and removed 120 Pg of carbon annually, atmospheric store to biomass. Supports the entire biosphere
      - Respiration - Plants and animals, moves carbon from the biosphere store to the atmospheric store
      - Combustion - Burning of fossil fuels and organic material in the presence of oxygen from geological store to the atmospheric store. Can be natural and good (lighting strikes → wild fires) or human activity (fossil fuels)
      - Diffusion - Into and out of bodies of water from the air, atmospheric store to oceanic store
      - Lithification - Sediments in the oceans (usually Calcium carbonate), slowly getting compacted over time until the eventually turn to rock
      - Flow are affected by temperature, pressure, sunlight, water (decomposition)
      - Weathering
        
        Chemical - Acidic rainwater (water reacted with Co2 in atmosphere) falls on rocks that contain calcium carbonate, reacts and dissolves the rocks, Carbonation. Releases carbon from the slow carbon cycle to the fast cycle
        
        Physical - Freeze-thaw, speeds up the breakdown of rocks via chemical weathering
        
        Biological - Plants and moss grows on rocks and forms acidic liquid and causes chemical weathering
      - Decomposition - Decomposer organisms (fungi, bacteria) break down organic material, releasing minerals into the soil and Co2 into the atmosphere
    - - Atmosphere - Carbon is stored at atmospheric CO2, since the industrial revolution combustion has caused carbon to be released
      - Oceans - Carbon diffuses into oceans and is sequestered by plankton, if too much carbon it makes it acidic. Contains 38,000 PgC of carbon
      - Vegetation and Biomass - Atmospheric CO2 is taken in via photosynthesis and contained in plants and trees in the form of biological molecules (cellulose). The biosphere contains 560 Pg (billion tonnes)
      - Rocks - 80% of all carbon is sorted in the geological cycle, mainly sedimentary rocks like limestone. Long term store, can take millions of years and carbon is released via tectonic activity
      - Ice - Water contained dissolved Carbon is frozen, carbon is trapped in bubbles in ice, warming releases it
      - Permafrost - Bubbles of air with lots of CO2 and Methane are trapped in the ice. Biological material is frozen which prevents decomposition but melting allows it to decompose and release CO2
      - Ground water - When rain fall it can react with CO2 in the atmosphere, to form carbonic acid and Co2 can diffuse into the water, if this water enters the ground carbon is now in the soil (pedosphere)
      - Long term stores - Within rocks, underneath the earths mantel and in ice.
        
        Made up from stores that hold carbon for millions of years, main store is sedimentary rocks formed through lithification
        
        Carbon stayed fixed, unless the rock is being weathered at the surface or being subducted, both processes are very slow
        
        Outline - Marine organisms build their shells from calcium and carbon in the ocean → They die and their shells and skeletons accumulate on the floor → Overtime these get compressed at the bottom of the ocean and build up to create carbon rich rock. Carbon is only released from this rock due to the oceanic crust being subducted and melted or chemical weathering on the surface (carbon goes into the water)
        
        Tectonics- When carbon is trapped in long term stores, it is only released when plates subduct ad result in a volcanic eruption **
      - Short term stores - In the atmosphere, oceans and biosphere. Carbon can quickly flow between short term stores
        
        Outline - Transfer of carbon between the atmosphere, oceans, living organisms and soil, the amount of carbon stored in these stores is much smaller than the amount of carbon in the slow carbon cycle but its much quicker.
        
        Speed of cycle
        
        Temperature - Affects decomposition, rate of photosynthesis, rate of respiration, permafrost thaw and causes wildfires
        
        Rainfall - Wetter conditions mean more decomposition, drought kills plants so decreases photosynthesis
        
        Humans - deforestation and fuel burning
        
        The volume of carbon moving between stores in the fast carbon cycle is 1000x greater than the slow cycle
        
        Carbon sequestering in the ocean
        
        Physical pump - Co2 diffuses into the surfae water of the ocean → currecnts move water towards the poles where it cools and get more dense → water containing Co2 sinks (downwelling) → carbon in cold sea water can be trapped for long time before it diffuses back to the surface
        
        Biological pump - Carbon diffuses into sea water → phytoplankton use it in photosynethesis (this carbon ends up as sediemnts or is consumed) → mollusks extract calcium carbonate from the sea water and make shells → shells and bones get lithified to rock
    - - Lithosphere - 60,000 to 100,000,000
      - Oceans - 40,000
      - Sea floor sediments - 6,000
      - Fossil feuls - 4,000
      - Soil - 2,500
      - Atmosphere - 600
      - Land plants - 560
  - - - Decomposition = More global warming →Higher rate of decomposition →More carbon released →More global warming
      - Permafrost = More global warming → more permafrost melts → Methane and Co2 trapped in the ice is releases → bio matter is available for decomposition → more Co2 → Global warming
      - Albedo = More Global warming → More ice melting → lower albedo (less solar radiation is reflected back) → more warming
      - Cold water = Global warming → warmer oceans → warm water can hold less Co2 → more Co2 in the atmosphere
      - Acid rain - More Co2 in atm → more diffuses into rainwater to make more acidic carbonic acid → more chmical weathering → more Co2 releases from slow carbon cycle → back to atm
    - - NPP of plants = Warmer temps → more Co2 in the atmosphere → more photosynthesis and faster plants growth → more carbon sequestered. (warm rainforests have a higher NPP)
      - Cloud reflection = More Global warming → more evaporation and cloud cover → clouds reflect more solar radiation → less warmth is absorbed
      - Permafrost melt = Warmer temps → more permafrost melts → more areas are able to grow vegetation and trees → more photosynthesis → less carbon in the atmosphere
- - - - Condensation and precipitation are the inputs to the entirety of the water cycle.
        Precipitation is the only way that the water can get from the clouds back down to the ground allowing it to start its travel in the water cycle.
        Condensation is also an input because it allows water vapour to condense and forms clouds which accumulate mass and then fall as precipitation.
        Without condensation then the water vapour would have no way of returning to liquid form after it had been evaporated. And so there would be no cycle.
    - - leakage from groundwater and run off.
        Evaporation removes water from the ocean and other water sources like rivers and lakes. It also causes ice and snow to sublime and turn directly into water vapour.
        Evaporation allows water to enter the atmosphere where it can rise and form clouds. When groundwater leaks then it can get stuck in the ground for thousands of years as it has no way to escape if the rock is impermeable or partially permeable. It then takes thousands of years for the water to work its way through to a water source.
        Run off can also direct water into places it has not gone before. For example if the ground becomes saturated and water starts to collect on the surface then it has the ability to flow somewhere where there is no water source for it to join.
    - - Cryosphere (ice) - stores more water than ground water, only released through melt
        Oceans - largest store of water, rising sea levels due to global warming melting cryosphere, sun constantly evaporating water from oceans allowing it to enter ATM
        Ground water - all water stored after percolation into the bedrock and can take thousands of years for water to leave ground water store the the process of ground flow
        ATM - stored as vapour or clouds in the sky. This store is constantly changing due to condensation and so falling to the ground as precipitation, then more water evaporated and enters ATM
        Pedosphere - Water also stored as soil moisture and water moves through the soil by through flow.
        Biosphere - Water stored in living organisms. Plants and Animals
        Trees intercept water and and then store water on their leaves and in their roots.
        ATM = atmosphere
    - - Short term
        
        Seasonally
        
        Rainy season
        
        Hot seasons (summer)
        
        Daily
        
        Temperatures change levels of evaporation and transpiration, as well how how much rainfall happens
      - Long term
    - - Basics - Solar radiation heats the ground and by conduction this heats the air around it. When the air is headed, this air will expand and rise vertically (convection). This air will rise as long as the air around it is colder
      - Absolute humidity = The total amount of water air can hold in an area. Relative humidity - The amount of water vapour in the air as a % of what the air could hold (a % of the absolute humidity point)
        
        Warm vs Cold humidity
        
        Absolute humidity is the total amount of water that air can hold in an area. The grams of moisture per cubic meter of air (g/cm3)
        
        Warm air will have a higher absolute humidity saturation point than cold air. Clouds form when the air passes the point of 100% relative humidity and as a result the water condenses
        
        Saturated air will cool slower than surrounding air. Air falls at 6.5d degrees for each 1000m. Condensed water cools slower as the water stored in it releases latent heat and cools slower.
        
        Stability - The air with water is cooler than the surrounding ait and as a result the air does not rise anymore. Instability - The
      - Adiabatic expansion - When air is heated it will increase the pressure as the air has been caused to expand. Because it is now less dense it will rise, as it rises it cools
  - - - The humid air comes over the sea towards the coast.
        
        As the humid air hits the mountains it is forced upwards.
        
        The air then condenses and forms clouds, and then precipitation occurs.
        
        The air continues to travel to the other side of the mountains, however it has a lot less moisture left, therefore there can be a rain shadow desert
    - - When ground is intensely heated by the sun warm air rises
        
        It then cools, condenses and forms clouds which lead to rainfall.
        
        The hotter it is, the more the ground is heated, releasing more hot air which will lead to more rainfall.
    - - Warm air doesn’t mix with cold air, warm air rises over cold air, condenses and falls as precipitation.
        
        It rains a lot in the UK because we are right on the boundary of warm air coming down from Africa and cold air from the poles.
        
        Frontal rain occurs when two air masses meet. When a warm air mass meets a cold air mass, they don't mix as they have different densities. Instead, the warm less dense air is pushed up over the cold dense air creating the 'front'
    - - precipitation that reaches the ground as rain may have started as a different form of precipitatio
        
        super cooled water in ATM (stays as water below 0 deg C)
        
        Ice crystals fall through super cooled water attracting super cooled water to stick allowing it to gain size
        
        As snow crystals fall through the sky they pick up other snow crystals and become larger to form snowflakes via accretion
        
        If the surface temperature is not low enough it will melt and may fall as other forms of precipitation.
  - - - Gradient - flat plateau hydrograph because it encourages more water to go underground which takes longer for the water to get to the river. So less likely to flood. Steep faster rate of surface runoff flashy hydrograph greater flood risk
      - Vegetation - trees that lose their leaves have less interception, less evapotranspiration and less root uptake leading to a more flashy hydrograph. Coniferous trees will intercept will have more root uptake and will lose water to ET plateauing hydrograph.
      - Soil type - Clay is impermeable with less infiltration so more runoff which leads to a more flashy hydrograph. Sands and gravels will infiltrate the water going underground slower route to river therefore a plateau hydrograph. I
      - Rock type - porous rock allows water into it allowing for more water into the ground slower route to river plateau hydrograph. Whereas non porous rock allows no water to infiltrate the soil leading to a more surface runoff with quicker route to river leading to more flashy hydrograph.
      - Urbanisation - Gutters and drains route large amounts of water to the river quickly leading to more flashy hydrographs. Less urbanisation, less direct flow to the river plateau hydrograph.
      - Drainage density - The drainage density will route more water more quickly to one place therefore leading to a more flashy hydrograph. Less drainage density will be harder for water to find route to mian river therefore more plateau hydrograph
- - - - Increased precipitation during summer, can lead to thermokarst forming
      - Increases evaporation and humidity during summer as warmer air can hold more water and there will be more liquid/surface water
    - - Decomposition increases as decomposer microorgansims become more active and permafrost thaws so more biological material is exposed
      - NPP increases as the growth season of plants start, more carbon is sequestered. Because warmer temps, more liquid water and more sunlight
  - - - Oil was first discovered in the North of Alaska in 1968, US wanted to decreases their dependency on foreign suppliers and domestic demand was very high. The gov decided to increase their oil production abilities in Alaska and they heavily invested in infrastructure
      - Melting of permafrost
        
        Activities of the oil and gas companies, like extraction, ground clearing and building infrastructure and housing all have causes the permafrost to melt at a faster rate, Ground subsistence
        
        Carbon - Increases active layer to more biomass to decompose, methane and Co2 releases from being trapped in ice,
        
        Water - More water stored in liquid forms so more thermokarst, more run-off and higher river discharge (increases risk of flooding). More surface water leads to more evaporation so more rainfall
        
        25 million tonnes of Co2 and 75,000 tonnes of methane are released from permafrost melting each year
      - Removal of vegetation
        
        Carbon - Decreases the NPP of the permafrost, decreases insulation so causes more decomposition
        
        Water - More melting, less root uptake so more thermokarst and melt water, less evapotranspiration during summer
      - Dust deposition on snow and ice
        
        Industrial practices in oil extraction create dust and waste which if deposited on whiter surfaces causes the albedo effect
        
        Cabron and water - Increases melting of permafrost and ice/snow
      - Combustion of oil and gas for heating facilities, transport and machinery
        
        Extraction of oil and gas increase oil and gas consumption around the world
    - - impacts on water cycle
        
        Local water quality becomes contaminated and so servery damages local aquatic life and increase rates of marine toxicity. (more fish have abnormal growths and abysses) could endanger the local people as it a main source of food.
        
        Tailing ponds filled with toxic waste
        
        Removal of forests decreases interception and increases flood risk
      - Impact on carbon cycle, Combination of the high energy it requires to remove carbon from the tar sands and in doing so the destruction of a number of carbon sinks eg removal of forests, wetlands, mires, Extreme impact on carbon cycle with huge volumes entering ATM and little being sequestered.
        
        170 billion barrels of oil there, 11% of the worlds reserves.
        
        Mines reach 70m down destroying huge volumes of tundra
        
        3x more polluting that removing it form stores under the sea (much more energy intensive as have to extract it from bitumen)
        
        Strip mining results in huge damage to the local boreal forest leading to the creation of a wasteland devoid of any veg this then heavily impacts the biosphere. Less veg to sequester carbon and photosynthesis leads to more CO2 in the ATM
        
        Soil also becomes infertile as no leaf litter or decomposition providing the soil with nutrients, so prevents the restoration of veg to try and equalise the feedback loops
        
        Extraction of oil in tar sands v energy intensive and release 80% more greenhouse gasses in extraction then quintessential oil well
      - Impacts of production
        
        Production required huge numbers of new roads, pipelines, pumping stations, airports. Massively affecting both cycles
        
        Cut down 350,000 trees to allow for this heavy introduction of infrastructure, this sudden redcution in the levl of veg leads to decrease in carbon sequestered in biosphere therefore more carbon flowing to ATM.
        
        Furthermore no veg to carry out processes such as interception and evapotranspiration (both decrease). Also decrease in percolation and infiltration due to impermeable materials used to build the roads and airports
        
        The runoff will increase which could lead to flashfloods which then can strip the soil of its nutrients making it less fertile and so reducing the amount of veg able to survive further decreasing the level of carbon sequestered
        
        The drilling pads would require massive quarrying of local rivers to produce gravel for construction sites. Interfering with the water cycle as large rivers are lost and turn into barren unfertile holes which could disturb natural drainage systems
        
        this would impact the carbon cycle too as the carbon and methane trapped in the permafrost would be released into the atmosphere increasing the flow of carbon from the cryosphere into the atmosphere.
    - - One of the world's largest oil tankers became grounded on a reef off the coast of southern alaska
      - 240,000 barrels, 11 million gallons of oil leaked into the ocean.
      - Exxon used chemicals to try to separate the oils however the chemicals were
      - actually toxic to marine life and only made it appear the oil was gone however
      - it had actually been moved to below the surface where is affected marine life even more
  - - - Insulated gravel pads for homes and other buildings and roads stop heat seeping into the surrounding permafrost so reducing melting
    - - Elevating pipelines and other structures allows for cold air to circulate beneath the structure and separating the ice from the heat making pipeline so preventing the permafrost melt
    - - can access more oil and gas from one mine therefore affecting less permafrost and vegetation and so having a smaller impact on carbon and water cycles
    - - Fewer exploration wells needed as they can locate the sources of oils and gas much more accurately therefore reducing the impact on the environment.
    - - Used to conserve the permafrost beneath pipelines and many buildings across Alaska.
- - - - Geology - Impermeable areas have minimal water storage capacity resulting in rapid run off therefore creating a more overland flow and less infiltration as the water can not penetrate into the surface of the rock as it is impermeable. Porous rock allows water to infiltrate into the rock therefore can store more water then allows for the water to move via throughflow which is a much slower process that takes place below the surface.
      - Relief - Slight slopes can lead to a small amount of runoff but also allow infiltration and then the water travels through the ground slowly. Whereas on steep areas of land for example mountain ranges the water does not have a chance to infiltrate due to the angle of the terrain leading to rapid runoff.
      - Temperature - Creates more convectional rainfall as the heat warms up more of the air above the surface leading to more air rising cooling and condensing and being stored in clouds. It then leads to more precipitation of water. High temps also lead to more EP which is another store of water due to the high levels of interception.
      - Permeability and porosity - The more impermeable the ground is will lead to less infiltration and more runoff.
  - - - When trees are planted in an area they were not present in before, creating new areas of forest
        
        Carbon impacts - New trees sequester carbon through photosynthesis
        
        Water impacts - Reduce flooding as root uptake is increased, increases rates of transpiration
    - - Cutting down fewer trees on farm land and Agroforestry which is the inclusion of natives plants in farm lands
        
        Water - Native plants increase root uptake and decrease the risk of flooding
        
        Carbon - Native plant life in rainforests often can sequester more carbon than non-native plant life like crops
    - - Selective logging (loggers must get a permit and can only cut down some trees) and logging bans
        
        Carbon - Limits the number of trees that are cut down, allows wolf trees (old and hollow) to be cut down and make room for new trees
        
        Water - If the old wolf trees are replaced with new young trees the new trees take up more water and grow more efficiently
    - - A strategy set up by the UN where richer countries make payments to less developed countries with rainforests to stop deforestation, support responsible logging and forest management
        
        Carbon - Maintains the high rate of photosynthesis and supports decomposition in the fast carbon cycle
        
        Water - Higher rates of interception and root uptake, reducing flooding and less carbon in the atmosphere which leads to less carbonation of water sources
      - Carbon credits - Allows businesses to pollute to a certain amount, they are not full forced to shut down but change their practices, firms are forced to pay for these "credits"
    - - Tourism that heavily focuses on the natural environment and provides incentive to preserve the environment, worked in Costa Rica
        
        Water - Undisturbed
        
        Carbon - Cycle stays unaffected as the business owners want to preserve the natural environment
    - - Cutting the bark of the tree to extract natural liquid rubber, economic incentive instead of cutting trees down
        
        Carbon - Tree stays there, sequestering carbon and decomposition is not affected
        
        Water - Interception and transpiration stay high, risk of flooding is still lowered
- - - - Increased temps --> more evaporation therefore increasing volume of water in ATM. Water vapour is a green house gas so creates feedback loop leading to more evaporation and so more precipitations. --> Result in higher runoff in the water cycle and greater flood risk. Water vapour is also a source of energy for the ATM releasing latent heat on condensation. Which intensifies extreme weather events such as hurricanes and storms causing them to be more powerful and frequent. Cryosphere also melts allowing more water to be stored in ATM and oceans therefore contributes to the above.
    - - Warm air hold more water(humidity) therefore at mid latitudes eg equator it will be wetter. So there is more rainfall due to warming leading to more floods, more intense flash floods in temperate mid latitudes.
    - - The energy needed to evaporate the water. As the water condenses and precipitates, water falls to the ground. But energy can not be destroyed so it turns into latent heat of condensation energy. This is then used to increase the rate and severity of extreme weather events.
    - - When there is more Latent heat of condensation it intensifies the natural weather events and causes them to be more frequent and severe.
    - - Ice melts creating thermokarst, melting of permafrost release CH4 into ATM which then contributes to increasing the severity of feedback loops due to increased green house effect. so melting more permafrost.
    - - Oceans transport excess energy away from the equator to prevent overheating. Warm water is moved by ocean currents away from the equator, such as the North Atlantic drift current which carries warm water from the Caribbean. Along the way, water evaporates, leaving behind salt, increasing its density. The dense water sinks to the bottom and flows back towards the equator, creating a cycle. However, global warming is causing ice sheets in Greenland to melt, which injects large amounts of fresh water into the North Atlantic. This dilutes the salt concentration, preventing water from becoming dense and sinking. This disruption of the gyre can cause global cooling in temperate latitudes, leading to aridity in Africa and possible freezing over of temperate latitudes.
  - - - The oceans absorb carbon dioxide from the atmosphere which reduces the photosynthesis by phytoplankton, limiting the capacity of the oceans to store carbon. This then increases the PH of the ocean and increases the temp, which can damage and kill zooxanthellae. This prevents them from photosynthesising and sequestering carbon. Therefore there is more carbon in the oceans. There is then less lithification and so less carbon in the geological store. Causing a positive feedback loop.
    - - The permafrost melts which then allows for the peat to decompose which releases carbon into the atmosphere. The higher temperature the more carbon that is released creating a positive feedback loop. The peat stores will steadily decrease as the temperatures rise increasing the concentration of carbon in the atmosphere.
    - - As permafrost melts it allows for oxidation and decomposition of vast peat stores. Decomposition of organic material from the permafrost releases methane into the ATM contributing to global warming creating positive feedback loop. Albedo affect also occurs. as the tundra is darker than permafrost absorbing more heat melting more permafrost creating positive feedback loop.
    - - Increase in temperatures will allow boreal forest in places such as Siberia, Canada and Alaska to expand closer to the poles as the temps are now warmer meaning the conditions are not as extreme. There are then more trees available to photosynthesize and sequester more carbon. removing CO2 for ATM reducing the concentration of carbon in ATM. Negative feedback loop.
    - - Higher temps due to global warming, will increase the rate of decomposition and also the increased levels of humidity will contribute to the rate of decomposition. SO increasing the flow of carbon from the biosphere to the atmosphere.
    - - Increased temps and humidity in the tropics where it already is v hot and humid can make the area extremely arid. Therefore could pose a threat to rainforests and effectively kill them off. They may then be replaced by grass lands which do not sequester anywhere near the volume of carbon sequestered by rainforest. Therefore this excess carbon is often stored in the ATM and there a far fewer tree photosynthesising and removing carbon from the ATM. SO creating a positive feedback loop.
- - - - Restoration efforts
        
        The UK had a target of restoring 500ha of wetland by 2020, currently restoring 400ha of farmland back into Wetland in Cambridgeshire.
        
        Typically done by raising the water table and creating water logged conditions. Can also be done by redirecting rivers and removing flood embankments
        
        Canada, 112000 ha have been targeted for restoration programmes in Canada which eventually should sequester 364000 tonnes C/year**
  - - - Improving quality of animal feed to be less carbon intensive and put methane inhibitors in animal feed
    - - Controlling the way manure decomposes to reduce CH4 emissions. Could store manure in anaerobic containers and capturing the CH4 as a source of renewable energy.
    - - contour ploughing to reduce run off soil erosion removing nutrients
        
        Avoiding using hevy machiney on wet soils --> compaction of soil and so increased run-off.
        
        Newer strains of rice that grow in drier conditions so produce less CH4.
        
        Leving crop residues after harvest to protect the soil form erosion and drying out
        
        Polyculture, growing crops interspersed with trees, so that the trees can protect the crops and the soils from erosion.
        
        Zero tillage, growing crops without ploughing the soils conserving the soils organic content reducing oxidation and risk of erosion by wind and water.
    - - produces 100 million tonnes/year of CH4, a potent greenhouse gas
  - - - Cap and trade, offers an alternative international market-based approach to limit CO2 emissions. Under this scheme businesses are allocated an annual quota for their CO2 emissions. If they emit less than their quota they receive carbon credits which can then be traded in the international markets. But businesses that exceed their quotas must purchase additional credits or incur financial penalties. Carbon offsets are credits awarded to companies and countries for schemes such as afforestation, renewable energy and wetland restoration. They can be bought to compensate for excessive emissions elsewhere.
      - International agreements
        
        Climate change affects all countries in the world so solving the problem is an international issue that needs co-operation. However this co-operation be limited due to a number of reasons
        
        Why has co-operation been bad?
        
        Fossil fuel use improves economic growth
        
        Industrial/still developing countries believe that the majority of the climate crisis is due to post-industrial countries who emitted lots of emissions in the past and that they should be allowed to pollute to raise their living standards to a level similar to the post industrial countries
        
        Political tensions between countries
        
        Real agreements
        
        Kyoto Protocol - 1997
        
        Most developed countries agreed too a legally binding limit on their carbon emissions
        
        China and India were exempt as well as many developing countries
        
        Expired in 2012
        
        Paris agreement - 2015
        
        Aim of reducing Co2 emission level under 60% of 2010 levels by 2050
        
        Aim of keeping global warming under 2 degrees
        
        Problems - Countries can set their own targets and they are not legally binding so countries will not be forced to carry out what they have agreed on, so some may not follow their targets.
        
        Rich countries will give more money to developing countries to help them reach their goals
        
        COP26
        
        Aim of reducing our reliance on fossil fuels for energy, especially coal
        
        Use greener forms of energy generation, wind and solar
        
        Encourage the used of electric cars
      - EU emissions trading scheme - Created in 2005 and has lead to greenhouse gas emission from EU countries
- - - - Industrialisation has cause the flow of carbon from the geological store to the atmosphere to increase dramatically. This has been happening since 1800 and is increases every year
      - Glacial and interglacial periods
        
        Glacial periods - The overall carbon flux will decrease and slow down. ATM carbon falls
        
        NPP of plants decrease
        
        Decomposition decreases due to colder temps and biomatter gets trapped in perma-frost slowing decomposition further
        
        Glaciers and permafrost covers land which stop trees growing
        
        Colder ocean water absorbs more Co2 so with than and phytoplankton that is where most of the atmospheric carbon goes
    - - Glacial periods
        
        Huge flow of water from the ocean store to the cryosphere, sea levels fall by 130m
        
        Cryosphere stores expands to cover 1/3 of the earths surface
        
        Glacial advance and cold temperatures destroys trees and plants decreasing the store of water in the biosphere store
        
        Less humid climate as evaporation decreases and cold air can hold less moisture
      - Glacial periods decrease the amount of water in the fast water cycle and slow the cycle
  - - - Carbon
        
        Carbon moves from the atmosphere to the biosphere due to photosynthesis of plants and phytoplankton during the day. At night the flow is reversed as plants respire
        
        At night, decomposition is slowed as lower temperatures make it slower
      - Water
        
        In the day, rates of evapotranspiration increase from plants as they open their stomata for efficient gas exchange to fuel their photosynthesis and hotter temperatures
        
        Lower temperatures at night decrease evaporation
        
        Less convectional rainfall as they needed the heating of the grounds surface from solar radiation and less water in the ATM
    - - Seasons are controlled by variations in the intensity of solar radiation. In the UK, solar radiation peaks in Mid June
        
        Carbon
        
        The main variation in the carbon cycle seasonally is changes in NPP of plants
        
        Summer
        
        Increase in NPP
        
        Warmer temps = plants growing more so more carbon is sequestered
        
        Longer days = longer photoperiod
        
        During the northern hemispheres summer, there is a significant decrease in Co2 in the ATM, levels fall by 2 ppm
        
        Warmer ocean temps cause phytoplankton populations increases dramatically
        
        Winter
        
        Decrease in NPP and increase in decomposition after the end of the growing season
        
        Shorter photoperiod
        
        Seasonal plants die out as some regions get inhospitable
        
        When plants loose their leaves reducing photosynthesis and increasing decomposition
        
        Water
        
        Evapotranspiration increases dramatically in Summer, In some parts of England 80% of precipitation is lost to evapotranspiration
        
        In summer river discharge it much lower
        
        Soil moisture and ground water storage is lowest in summer