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Personality 1, Screenshot 2023-04-26 at 11.09.29 am, Screenshot 2023-04-26…
Personality 1
Behaviourist
Approaches
- behaviourism:
- personality is observable and measurable
- behaviourist movement as a reaction against psychology's focus on unmeasurable phenomena.
- wundt's introspection, freud's unconscious.
- human beings have a completely malleable nature > change their personality, what they do, etc.
- a person's personality is the sum total of all of their experiences/behaviour and nothing else.
- stimulus-response contingencies > classical conditioning
- reinforcement contingencies > operant/instrumental conditioning
- unconscious or otherwise unobservable reasons for the things we do are irrelevant to behaviourist approaches to personality.
- moderate:
- the contents of the organism are important in explaining behaviour.
- moderate behaviourists (such as social learning theorists and cognitive behaviourists) will use terms describing activities inside the organism (habits, motives, drives, expectancies, thoughts)
- radical:
- the contents of the organism are not important in explaining behaviour.
- skinner, watson et al 1920s/30s
- there are only 3 elements/variables:
- stimulus
- response
- reinforcement/punishment
- classical conditioning:
- unconditioned stimulus (US) resulting in unconditioned response (UR).
- any stimulus an organism can perceive is capable of eliciting any reaction the organism is capable of making.
- operant/instrumental conditioning
- REINFORCEMENT: increasing the frequency or probability of a behaviour by removing or presenting a stimulus following that behaviour.
- POSITIVE reinforcement: increasing the frequency or probability of a behaviour by presenting an appetitive stimulus following the behaviour
- NEGATIVE reinforcement: increasing the frequency or probability of a behaviour by removing an aversive stimulus following the behaviour.
- PUNISHMENT: decreasing the frequency of a behaviour by presenting or removing a stimulus following that behaviour.
- POSITIVE punishment: decreasing the frequency or probability of a behaviour by presenting an aversive stimulus following the behaviour
- cheating on an exam, fail the course.
- NEGATIVE punishment: decreasing the frequency or probability of a behaviour by removing an appetitive stimulus following the behaviour.
- break rules, can't use car this weekend
- implications:
- free will, human nature, personality changes.
- skinner; "we need to develop a technology of behaviour to facilitate the common good. to achieve this society must overcome the traditional notions of human freedom and dignity. society needs to recognise that people are controlled by contingencies of reinforcement and society is nothing more than a set of contingencies of reinforcement.
- "we have to abandon the illusion that men are free agents that control their own behaviour, for whether we like it or not, we are all controlled."
Humanistic
Approaches
- basics:
- focus on phrenology: the study of conscious experience as it exist for the person, without any attempt to reduce, divide, or compartmentalise it.
- defining characteristics: belief in free will, believe meaning is important (influenced by existential philosophers), emphasise the uniqueness of each individual, personal growth, enjoying the 'here and now'.
- a kinder, more 'humane' view of people: humanists see human nature as basically good, and are optimistic about humanity and the future.
- carl rogers' theory:
- the effects of culture on personality: it can distort inherent goodness.
- our culture values materialism and people who have money. hence, we learn to believe that pursing and obtaining wealth will make us happy.
- for individuals, you need enough money to live comfortably and take care of yourself and your family.
- once your basic needs are met, money doesn't add happiness.
- elements of the theory:
- actualising tendency: built-in motivation in every organism to develop its potential to the fullest extent possible.
- organismic valuing process: a subconscious guide that attracts people to growth-producing experiences and away from growth-inhibiting ones.
- positive regard: experiencing love, affection, attention, nurturance.
- positive self-regard: self-esteem, self-worth, positive self-image. achieved through parental unconditional positive regard.
- conditional positive regard: society puts different conditions of worth on people; we only feel like we're a good person and have good self-esteem if we do what society is telling us to.
- material cultural influences can increase the discrepancy between our real selves and our ideal selves.
- the fully functioning person:
- open to experience: receptive to the objective and subjective happenings of life.
- existential living: living in each moment (flow)
- organismic trusting: allowing ourselves to be guided by the organismic valuing process.
- experiential freedom: we feel free when we have choices.
- creativity: adapting to new situations, creative expression.
- abraham maslow's theory:
- maslow's hierarchy. satisfy the bottom level before moving up, and then further up, etc.
- exceptions:
- esteem taking precedence over love: people who ignore/ruin relationships to achieve.
- people who seem to not desire love: could have been deprived of love when young, or need was always met in abundance (so they don't need more)
- artists who have produced their greatest works in times of dire safety, belongingness, and physical need (dostoevsky, van gogh)
- martyrs: people who sacrifice their safety and lives for a value or ideal.
- formula for happiness:
- self-determination theory: proposes three universal needs > autonomy, relatedness, competence.
- a modern humanistic theory of motivation and personality.
- humanisms lasting impact:
- client-centred therapy, prompting job satisfaction by fulfilling higher needs, child rearing practices (unconditional positive regard).
Psychodynamic
Approaches
- freudian approaches:
- terms associated with freud/psychoanalysis: psychotherapy, psychiatry, therapist, depression, etc.
- freudian concepts: the unconscious, talking cure, rorschach test (invalid)
- did not come up with the idea of the unconscious, but popularised it.
- his ideas dominated psychology for nearly 100 years
- he was a neurologist, not a psychologist
- many of his ideas are still with us today in altered forms
- structural model:
- ego: the self
- reality principle. operates by "secondary process" > can reason with it.
- daily struggle between the id and the superego.
- id: the monster within you
- immediate pleasure principle (desires, urges, etc.) immediate gratification.
- operates by "primary process" > can't reason with it.
- there are only two motives all people have
- to create > sex/eros (libido)
- to destroy > death/thanatos
- superego: angel on your shoulder
- socialisation, internalised standards and values (parents/society you grew up with), conscience and guilt.
- genetic (/developmental) model:
- freud thought that children also had sexual urges.
- psychosexual urges: sexuality centred on the mouth, anus, and then genitals.
- fixation: staying in one stage for two long.
- topographic model:
- conscious: thoughts, perceptions.
- preconscious: memories, stored knowledge
- unconscious: fears, violent motives, sexual desires, selfish needs, shameful experiences, irrational wishes.
- dreams: latent content and manifest content.
- manifest content: what happens in your dreams
- latent content: what the manifest content represents.
- in dreams, your unconscious evades a "censor"
- freudian slips: slip-ups that are supposedly a window into your subconscious
- critiques:
- rests on only two instincts > sex and death > not plausible enough.
- "data" was unreliable and ambiguous by nature > wild, arbitrary and over-confident judgements.
- does not support most aspects of psychoanalytic theory
- supports unconscious mental processes influencing behaviour, and the conflict between conscious and unconscious processes.
- human nature:
- all personality theories either implicitly or explicitly take a stance on human nature.
- freud:
- people are subjected to uncontrollable unconscious conflict and predetermined stages of development.
- these processes cause suffering and leave little room for the "goodness of mankind" to shine through.
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