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crime and deviance pt 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - some sociologists argue that the official statistics underestimate the amount of female offending. Two arguments have been put forward to support this view.
        
        Female crimes are less likely to be reported
        
        Even when women’s crimes are reported, they are less likely to be prosecuted
    - - yeah, do that women are less likely to be prosecuted for the offences is known as the chivalry thesis. This argues that the criminal justice system is more lenient towards women, because it’s agents - police officers, judges, juries - are men who are socialised to act chivalrously towards women
        
        Pollak argues that men have a protective attitude towards women, so they are unwilling to arrest, charge, prosecute, or even a convict them. Their crimes are less likely to end up in the official statistics, giving an invalid picture that underrepresents female crime.
    - - self report studies suggest that female offenders are treated more leniently:
        
        Graham and Bowling found young males were 2.33 times more likely than females to admit to having committed it offence in the previous year. Whereas the official statistics show males as four times more likely to offend
        
        compared with men, women are also more likely to be cautioned and rather than prosecuted
        
        Hood’s (1992) study of over 3000 defendants found that women were about one third less likely to be jailed in similar cases
        Official statistics show females are more likely to receive a fine and less likely to be sent to prison
    - - Buckle and Farrington (1984) witness twice as many males shoplifting, despite the fact that the number of male and female offenders in the official statistics of roughly equal. This suggests women shoplifters are more likely to be prosecuted.
        
        Self report, studies show that males commit more offences, the more serious offence, the greater the gender gap
        
        Many males do not get reported e.g. rape
    - - feminists argue that the criminal justice system is not biased in favour of women, as the chivalry thesis claims, but biased against them. they argue that the criminal justice system treats women more harshly, especially when they deviate from gender, norms of monogamous, heterosexuality and motherhood
        
        Heidensohn (1996) notes the double standards of courts, punishing girls, but not boys for promiscuous sexual activity
        
        Walklate argues that in rape cases, it is the victim who is on trial since she has to prove her respectability in order to have her evidence accepted
    - - overall, women in general do seem to have a lower rate of offending than men. How then can we explain the behaviour of those women who do offend? Sociologists have put forward three explanations: sex role theory, control theory and deliberation thesis
    - - Most crime appears to be committed by males. 4 out of five convicted offenders are male. Among offenders, a higher proportion of female is a convicted of property offences, while a higher proportion of men are convicted of violent or sexual offences. Males are more likely to commit serious crimes.
  - - - Women’s domestic role with his constant housework and childcare and poses severe restrictions on their time and move it and can find them to the house for long periods reducing their opportunities to offend
      - men are able to impose this role on women by the threat of domestic violence and through their financial power
      - daughters are also subject to patriarchal control with restrictions on going out or staying out late. Instead they develop a bedroom culture socialising at home with friends rather than in public spaces. girls are also required to do more housework which also restricts their opportunities to engage in deviant behaviour on the streets
    - - Women are controlled in public places by the fear of male sexual violence. media reporting of rapes helps to frighten women to stay indoors.
      - females are also controlled in public by the fear of being defined is not respectable
    - - Women subordinate position at work, reduces criminal opportunities. The glass ceiling prevents women rising to senior positions where there are more opportunities for white-collar crime.
    - - Heidensohn argues that women commit fewer crimes than men because patriarchal society imposes a greater control over women, thus reducing their opportunities to offend. Patriarchal control operates at home, in public and at work.
  - - - Carlen study, 39 working-class women who had been convicted of a range of crimes. 20 were imprisoned or youth custody. Carlen argues that most convicted serious, female criminals are working class.
    - - Carlen uses Hirschi’s control theory to explain female crime
        
        He argues that humans act rationally, and are controlled by being offered a deal: rewards in return for conforming to norms
        
        People commit crime, if they don’t believe they will get rewards, or if their awards of crime appear greater than the risks
        Carlen argues that working-class women are generally lead to conform through the promise of two deals:
        The class deal: women who work will get a decent standard of living
        The gender deal: women who conform to the conventional domestic gender role will gain the material and emotional rewards of family life
        
        In terms of the class deal, the women in Carlens study had failed to find a legitimate way of earning a decent living. Most had always been in poverty; many could not get a job and had experienced problems claiming benefits
        
        In terms of the gender deal, sam has been abused by their fathers are partners. Over half had spent time in care, which broke family bonds
    - - Adlers (1975) liberation thesis argues that as women become liberated from patriarchy, their offending will become similar to men’s. Women’s liberation is leading to a new type of female criminal and arise in the female crime rate.
        
        Adler argues that patriarchal controls and discrimination have lessons and opportunities have become more equal
        
        As a result, women have begun to adopt traditional male roles in legitimate an illegitimate spheres, and the rate of offending has risen
        
        Women, no longer just commit traditional female crimes. There are more women in senior positions at work and it gives in the opportunity to commit serious white-collar crimes
  - - - victim surveys, such as the crime survey for England and Wales show gender differences in victimisation, and in the relationship between victim offender.
        
        More men than women are victims of violence or homicide, but more women than men are victims of intimate violence
        
        10 times more women reported having been sexually assaulted. But only 8% of females who experience serious sexual assaults are reported it to the police
        
        Women have a great a fear of crime, but the CSEW shows they are at less risk. However, some local surveys have found women are in fact at greater risk
    - - recent increases in female convictions for violence, suggest women are committing more male crimes. This seems to support the liberation thesis.
        However, other evidence suggest there has been no change in women’s involvement in violent crime.
        
        In the USA, Steffensmeier and Schwartz (2009) found the increase in official statistics, was not matched by findings of victim surveys or self report studies
        
        net widening, they argue that the increase is due to the justice system widening the net - prosecuting females for less serious violence than previously
        
        Worrall (2004) argues that in the past to girls’ misbehaviour was more likely to be seen as a welfare issue, whereas now it has been re-labelled as criminality
      - The increase in female convictions may be due to a media inspired, moral panic about young women being out of control. Sharpe (2009) found that criminal justice system professionals were influenced by media stereotypes of violent ladettes
        
        This create an amplification spiral: reports of girls misbehaviour, sensitise police and courts, who take a tougher stance, resulting in more convictions, does producing further negative media coverage
  - - - evident strongly suggest the most offenders are men. What is it about being a male that increases the likelihood of offending? Attention has focused on the concept of masculinity to explain this pattern
    - - Messerschmidt argues that masculinity is an accomplishment - something that men have to constantly work at constructing in presenting to others. In doing, so, some men have more resources and others to draw upon.
        
        Hegemonic masculinity is the dominant form of masculinity and won the most men wish to accomplish. It is define through paid work, the ability to subordinate women (both at home and at work) and heterosexuality
        
        Subordinated masculinity: some men, including many lower class, and ethnic minority men, lack the resources to accomplish hegemonic masculinity, and so turn to crime. However, Messerschmidt notes that some middle-class men also use crime to achieve hegemonic masculinity, but that in their case it is white collar crime or corporate crime.
- - - - there are ethnic differences at each stage of the criminal justice process.
        How far are they the result of racism within the CJS?
    - - Phillips and Bowling (2007) know that there have been many allegations of oppressive policing of minority communities, including:
        
        Mass stop and search operations, paramilitary tactics, excessive surveillance, armed raids, police violence and deaths in custody, and a failure to respond effectively to racist violence
        
        They note that minorities are more likely to think they are over police and under protected
    - - Black people are seven times more likely to be stopped and searched than white people
        
        Asian people over three times more likely to be stopped and searched and other people
        
        Only a small proportion of stops result in arrest
        These patterns may be explained by:
        
        Ethnic differences in offending, the patterns may simply reflect the possibility that some ethnic groups are more likely to offend, and the police acting on relevant information about a specific offence
        -Police racism, alternatively members of minority ethnic groups may be stopped more because of police racism
        
        demographic factors, ethnic minorities are over represented in the groups, most likely to be stopped regardless of their ethnicity
    - - The restaurant for black people is over three times the rate for whites. By contrast, once arrested black and Asian people are less likely than white people to receive a caution.
    - - The Crown Prosecution Service decides whether a case brought by the police should be prosecuted:
        
        The CPS is more likely to drop cases against minorities than against whites, and black and Asian defendants are less likely to be found guilty than white people
        
        When cases do go ahead, minorities are more likely to elect for a Crown Court trial by jury rather than a magistrates court, perhaps due to the mistress of magistrates impartiality. However, Crown Court can impose heavier sentences if convicted.
    - - jail sentences are given to a greater proportion of black offenders than white or Asian offenders
        
        Hood found that even when the seriousness of the offence and previous convictions it taken into account, black men were 5% more likely to be jailed.
        
        Black people of five times more likely to be in prison than white people. Black and Asian people are more likely to be serving longer sentences.
        
        When awaiting trial, ethnic minorities are less likely to be granted bail
    - - official statistics on criminal justice process show differences between ethnic groups. There are two explanations for these differences: left realism and neo Marxism
  - - - These show the ethnic differences in the likelihood of being involved in criminal justice system
        
        For example, black people are seven times more likely than white people to be stopped and searched and five times more likely to be in prison
    - - He’s asking videos to say what crimes they have been victims of?
        
        Sometimes they ask, respondents to identify the ethnicity of the person committed a crime against them. For example, in the case of mugging, black people are significantly more likely to be identified as offenders.
    - - these ask individuals to disclose crimes they have committed:
        
        Graham and Bowling (1995) found a black people and white people had almost identical rates of offending, while Asian people had much lower rates.
        
        Other self report, studies show similar patterns, discrediting the stereotype of black people as being more likely than white people to offend
  - - - left realists, Lea and Young (1993) argue that ethnic differences in statistics, reflect real differences in levels of offending:
        
        They see crime is the product of relative deprivation, subculture and marginalisation
        
        Racism has led to the marginalisation and economic exclusion of ethnic minorities
        
        Media emphasises on consumerism also promotes relative deprivation by setting materialistic goals that many members of minority groups cannot reach by legitimate means because of discrimination
      - Lea and Young recognise that racist policing often leads the unjustified criminalisation of some members of minority groups
        
        However, even if the police do acting racist ways, Lea and Young argue that this is unlikely to account for the ethnic differences in the statistics
        
        Similarly, police racism cannot explain how much higher conviction rate of black people than of Asian people: they would have to be selectively racist against black people are not Asian people to cause these differences
    - - The statistics represent real differences in offending between ethnic groups
        
        These are caused by differences in levels of relative deprivation and marginalisation
  - - - Neo marxists reject the view that the statistics reflect reality. Rather, they are the outcome of a social construction process of stereotypes minorities as more criminal than whites.
    - - Gilroy argues that the idea of black criminality is a myth created by racist stereotypes of African Caribbean’s and Asians
        
        In reality, these groups of no more criminal than any other ethnic group
        
        But because the CJS acts on his racist stereotypes, minorities are criminalised, and therefore appear in greater numbers in the official crime statistics
        crime as political resistance Gilroy argues that ethnic minority crime is a form of political resistance against racist society, and this resistance has its roots in earlier struggles against British imperialism
        
        Most black and Asian people in the UK originated in former British colonies were there anticolonial struggle is taught them how to resist oppression
        
        When they found themselves facing racism in Britain, adopt the same form is a struggle to defend themselves, but their political struggles criminalise by the British state
    - - Hall argues that the 1970s saw moral panic over black muggers that serve the interests of capitalism in dealing with a crisis
        
        He argues that the ruling class I normally able to rule society through consent
        
        But in times of crisis this has become more difficult. In the early 1970s, British capitalism faced a crisis: high inflation, unemployment, and widespread strikes
        
        The 1970s also saw a media driven moral panic about the supposed growth of new crime - mugging -apparently committed by black youth. According to Hall, there was no significant evidence of this
        
        By presenting black youths as a threat to the fabric of society, the moral panic served to divide the working class and racial grounds, and weaken opposition to capitalism, as well as winning popular consent for more authoritarian forms of rule that could be used to suppress opposition.
        
        However, Hall does not argue that black crime was only a product of media labelling.
    - - neighbourhood factors: Fitzgerald found street robberies were highest in very poor areas, but we are the people had contact with richer groups. Young black people were more likely to live in these areas and to be poor poor white people in these areas were also more likely to commit street crime, thus ethnicity as such was not a cause
      - getting caught: Sharpe and Budd (2005) found black offenders were more likely than white offenders to have been arrested. This was because they committed crimes were victims could identify them and have been excluded from school or associated with known criminals.
- - - - crime and deviance make up a large proportion of news coverage. Williams and Dickinson found that British newspapers devote up to 30% of the news space to crime.
        However, the news media give a distorted image of crime, criminals and policing, for example, is compared with official statistics:
        
        The media over represent violent and sexual crime
        
        The media, portrays, criminals and victims as older and more middle-class
        
        The media exaggerate police success in clearing up cases
        
        The media exaggerate the risk of victimisation
        
        Crimes reported as a series of separate events without examining underlying causes
        
        The media over play extraordinary times
    - - The social construction of news: the distorted picture of crime, painted by the news media reflects the fact that the news is a social construction. As Cohen and Young note, news is not discovered but manufactured:
        
        News doesn’t simply exist out there, waiting to be gathered in and written up by the journalist
        
        Instead, it is the outcome of a social process whereby some potential stories are selected while others are rejected
        New values: the key element in the social construction of news is the concept of news values - the criteria the journalists and editors use in order to decide if the story is news, worthy enough to make it into the newspaper or news bulletin
        If a crime story can be told, in terms of some of these news values, it has a better chance of making the news. Key news values influencing the selection of crime stories include:
        
        immediacy
        
        dramatisation
        
        personalisation
        
        Higher status persons
        
        simplification
        
        Novelty or unexpectedness
        
        Risk
        
        Violence
    - - fictional representations from TV cinema and novels are also important sources of our knowledge of crime because so much of the output is crime related.
        Fictional representation is follow Surettes 1998 ‘law of opposites’: they are the opposite of the official statistics and strikingly similar to news coverage
        
        Property crime is underrepresented while violence, drugs, and sex crimes, overrepresented
        
        Fictional sex crimes are committed by psychopathic strangers, not acquaintances
        
        Fictional cops, usually get their man
        However, there are three recent trends:
        
        Reality shows tenderfeet a young nonwhite underclass offenders
        
        There is an increase tendency to show police as corrupt brutal and less successful
        
        Victims have become more central with police portrayed as avengers and audiences invited to identify with their suffering.
  - - - that has long been concerned that the media have a negative effect on attitudes, values and behaviour, especially on those thought most easily influenced, such as the young, lower classes and the uneducated.
        There are several ways in which the media might cause crime and deviance:
        
        Imitation
        
        arousal
        
        desensitisation
        
        Transmitting knowledge
        
        simulating desires
        
        glamorising crime
        
        However, studies have tended to find that exposure to media violence has at most a small negative effect on audiences
    - - The media exaggerate the amount of violent crime and exaggerate the risks of certain group becoming victims. Research evidence to some extent supports the view, that media cause fear of crime. For example, Schlesinger and Tumber found tabloid readers, and heavy users of TV express, greatest fear of going out at night and it’s becoming a victim
    - - left realists Lea and Young argue that the media increase relative deprivation among marginalised groups
        
        In today’s society were even the poorest have media access the media present, everyone with images of a materialistic, good life as the goal to which they should strive
        
        This simulates, a sense of relative deprivation and social exclusion felt by marginalise groups who cannot afford material goods and so turn to crime
        Cultural criminologists, Haywood and Young argue that late modern society is a media saturated society that emphasises consumption and excitement. The media turn crime itself into a commodity or style to be consumed and corporations use images of crime to sell products, especially to the young
  - - - The media may cause crime and deviance by creating moral panic. A moral panic is an exaggerated and irrational overreaction by society to the perceived problem, where the reaction enlarges the problem out of all proportion to its real seriousness. In a moral panic:
        
        The media, identify a group as a folk devil, or threat to societal values
        
        The media negatively stereotype the group and exaggerate the problem
        
        Moral entrepreneurs, editors, politicians etc leading to calls for a crackdown
        
        In turn, this may create a self-fulfilling prophecy, amplifying the very problem that cause a panic in the first place
        
        As the crackdown identifies more deviants, calls for even tougher action create deviance amplification spiral
    - - Stanley Cohen’s folk devils and moral panics examines how the medias response to disturbances between two groups of teenagers created a moral panic
        
        In the early stages, distinctions were not clear cut, and not many young people, identify themselves as belong to either group
        
        Initial confrontation, Saturn Easter weekend with a few scuffles and a minor property damage
        The media overreaction to these events involved three elements:
        
        Exaggeration and distortion
        
        Prediction
        
        Symbolisation
    - - The media portrayal of events produced a deviance amplification spiral into ways:
        
        By making appear that the problem is getting out of hand
        
        This led to calls for an increase control response from the police and courts
        
        This produce further stigmatisation of the mods and rockers as deviant
        
        By defining the two groups in emphasising their suppose the differences
        
        This led to more youths adopting these identities and drew in more participants for future
        
        This encourage polarisation and created a self-fulfilling prophecy
        -Cohen argues that moral panic are a result of boundary crisis where there is uncertainty about whether the boundary lies between acceptable and unacceptable behaviour in time of change
    - - functionalism and moral panics: functionalists see moral panics as a way of responding to the sense of an anomie created by change. By dramatising the threat to society in the form of folk devil, the media raise the collective consciousness and reassert social controls when central values are threatened.
      - Neo marxism and moral panics: Neo-marxists have also use the concept of more panics e.g. Hall argues that the moral panic over mugging served to distract attention from the crisis of capitalism
  - - - Thomas and Loader define cybercrime as computer, mediated activities that are either illegal or considered illicit, and I’ll conducted through global electronic networks
        
        As Jewkes (2003) notes, the interest creates opportunities to commit both conventional crimes e.g. Fraud and new crimes using new tools. Wall identified four categories of cybercrime: cyber tresspass, cyber deception, cyber pornography, and cyber violence
        policing cybercrime it’s difficult, partly because of the sheer scale of the Internet because it’s globalised nature of poses problems of jurisdiction
        surveillance ICT provides police and state with great opportunities for surveillance and control
- - - - globalisation refers to the increasing interconnectedness of societies: what happens in one locality is shaped by distance, events and vice versa
        
        Globalisation as many causes, including the spread of the new ICT, and the influence of global mass media, cheap air travel and deregulation of financial and other markets
    - - Held et al suggest there has been a globalisation of crime: the increasing interconnectedness of crime across national borders, and the spread of transnational organised crime
        Castells (1998) argues there is a global criminal economy worth over 1 trillion per annum:
        
        This takes many forms e.g. Trafficking arms and nuclear materials, smuggling illegal immigrants, trafficking in women and children, sex tourism, cybercrime, green crime and terrorism
        
        The drugs trade as worth an estimated 300 to 400 trillion annually at street prices, money laundering of the profits from organise crime is estimated at 1.5 trillion annually
    - - globalisation creates new insecurities or risk consciousness. Risk is now seen as global rather than tied to particular places e.g. Economic migrants and asylum seekers fleeing persecution have given rise to anxieties in western countries.
        
        One result is the intensification of social control at the national level e.g. The UK has tightened its border control regulations.
    - - From a Marxist perspective, Taylor argues that globalisation has led to greater inequality.
        
        transnational corporations can I switch manufacturing to low-wage countries to gain higher profits, producing job insecurity, unemployment and poverty
        
        deregulation means governments have little control over their own economies and state spending on welfare has declined
        This has produced rising crime in the patterns of crime:
        
        Among the poor, great insecurity encourages people to turn to crime
        
        For the elite, globalisation creates large-scale criminal opportunities
        
        New employment patterns, create new opportunities for crime
    - - Rothe and Friedrichs (2015) argue that the IMF commits ‘crimes of globalisation’ by imposing, procapitalist structural adjustment program is on poor countries requiring them to cut public spending and causing unemployment
  - - - Hobbs and Dunningham found that the way crime is organised is linked to globalisation. Increasingly involved individuals acting as a hub around which loose knit networks forms, often linking legitimate and illegitimate activities
        
        This is different from the rigid, hierarchal, mafia style, criminal organisations of the past
        
        Although these new phones of organisation of global links crime is still rooted in its local context. Hobbs and Dunningham conclude that crime works as a ’glocal’ system - locally based, but with global connections
    - - Glenny (2008) examined ‘Mcmafia’ - organisations that emerged in Russia and Eastern Europe after the fall of consumerism
        
        The new Russian government deregulated much of the economy, leading to large rising food prices and rents
        
        However, commodity prices (for oil, gas, metals) were kept at their old Soviet prices - way below the world market price. Thus, well connected citizens with access to large funds could buy these up very cheaply and sell them on the world market.
        
        This created a new elite referred to as ‘oilgarchs’
        
        To protect themselves from increasing disorder, oilgarchs turn to the new mafias (often composed of ex-state security/ Secret Servicemen from the old Communist regimes). These criminal organisations were vital for the entry of the new Russian capitalist class into the world economy.
  - - - Beck argues that most threats to human well-being and the ecosystem are human made rather than natural disasters
        
        in late modern society, the massive increase in productivity and technology has created new manufactured risks
        
        Many of these involve harm to the environment and have serious consequences for humanity e.g. Climate change
        
        These risks are increasingly on a global scale, so Beck describes late modern society as ‘global risk society’
    - - when pollution that causes global warming is actually legal, is this a matter of criminologists? There are two opposed answers.
        traditional criminology only studies the patterns and causes of lawbreaking
        
        If the pollution is legal than traditional criminology is not concerned with it
        green criminology is more radical. It starts from the notion of harm rather than the criminal law.
        
        Legal definitions cannot provide a consistent global standard of environmental harm since laws, different from state to state
        
        Many of the worst, environmental holmes are not legal, so the subject matter of green criminology is much wider than that of traditional criminology
        
        green criminology is a form of transgressive criminology - it transgresses the boundaries of traditional criminology to include new issues
    - - South (2008) identifies two types of green crime:
        
        primary green crimes ‘ result directly from the destruction and degradation of earths resources’. South identifies four main primary crimes: air, pollution, deforestation, species decline and water pollution
        
        secondary green crimes involve the flouting, the rules aimed at preventing or regulating environmental disasters
    - - Legal dispose of toxic waste is expensive, so businesses may dispose of it by using eco-mafias who profit from illegal dumping
        
        Illegal waste dumping is often globalised: western businesses ship their waist for processing in Third World countries were costs are lower and safety standards are non-existent
        
        In some cases dumping, is not even illegal, since less developed countries may lacked the necessary legislation outlawing it
  - - - Green and Ward (2005) define state crime as ‘illegal or deviant activities, perpetrated by, or with the complicity of state agencies’. McLaughlin (2001) identified four categories of state crime: political, economic, social/cultural and crimes by security and police forces
    - - The states power enables it to commit extremely large-scale crimes with widespread victimisation
        
        The states power also means it can concealers crimes are of a punishment more easily
        
        Because the state defines what is criminal and manages the criminal justice system uses the power to avoid finding its own harmful actions as criminal
        
        The principle of national sovereignty makes it very difficult for external authorities to intervene or apply international conventions against genocide, war crimes, et cetera
  - - - sociologist to put forward several ways of defining state crime:
        
        Domestic law: Chambliss define state crime as acts defined by law as criminal and committed by state officials in pursuit of their jobs as state representatives
        
        Social harms and zemiology: Michalowski define state crime, as including both illegal acts and legally permissible acts who is consequences are similar to those of illegal acts in the harm they cause
        
        Hillyard argues that we should replace the study of crimes with ‘zemiology’ - the study of holmes, whether or not they are against the law
        
        Labelling: labelling theory argues the weather in act is a crime depends on whether the audience for the act defines it as a crime, this recognises that state crime is socially constructed and so what people regard as crime can vary over time and in between groups
        
        International law: Rothe and Mullins define estate crime as any action by O on behalf of a state to violate international law and/or a states own domestic law
    - - Critical criminologists, Herman and Julia Schwendinger (1970) argue that we should define crime in terms of the violation of basic human rights, rather than the breaking of legal rules
        
        In their view, states that practice imperialism, racism, and sexism, or inflict, economic exploitation on their citizens are committing crimes
        
        Like the harms, approach, their view is an example of transgressive criminology, since it goes beyond the traditional boundaries of criminology
        the culture of denial Cohen argues that states conceal and legitimate their human rights crimes
        
        dictatorships simply deny committing human rights abuses
        
        Democratic states have to legitimate their actions, often following are three stage spiral of state denial.
        
        neutralisation theory Cohen examines the ways in which states and their officials neutralise their crimes. These include denial of the victim, denial of injury, denial of responsibility, condemning the condemners and appealing to higher loyalties
  - - - genocide in Rwanda under the Belgians, the minority Tutsi were used to rule over the Hutu majority. After independence elections brought the Hutus to power. By the 1990s, economif and political crisis led to civil war. 800,000 Tutsis were slaughtered by state backed Hutu Milita
        state-corporate crime state crimes are often committed in conjunction with corporate crimes. Kramer and Michalowski (1993) distinguish:
        
        state-initiated corporate crime when states initiate, direct or approve corporate crimes
        
        state-facilitated corporate crime when states failed to regulate and control corporate behaviour, making crime easier
        warcrimes we can distinguish two kinds of war related crime:
        
        Illegal wars
        
        Crimes committed during war or its aftermath
  - - - the authoritarian personality Adorno identifies an authoritarian personality, willing to obey orders without question
        crimes of obedience state crimes often involve being higher authority -the state - as part of a role into which individuals are socialised. Green and Ward know that torture is often socialise through propaganda about the enemy.
        
        modernity Bauman argues that for features of society made the Nazi Holocaust possible: a division of labour, bureaucratisation, instrumental rationality, and science and technology
- - - - SCP strategies are a preceptive approach that relies on reducing opportunities for crime. They target specific crimes by managing altering the environment and aim at increasing the risk of committing crime and reducing the rewards.
        
        Target hardening measure include locking door, security cards, reshaping the environment to design crime out of an area
        
        Underlying SCP is rational choice theory: yeah, I did a criminal act, rationally weighing up the risks and rewards of a crime opportunity
        
        SCP measures may simply displace crime, moving to different places times victims, type of crime et cetera
        
        This approach may explain, opportunistic petty street crime but not white collar crime, corporate and state crime. The assumption that criminals make rational calculations may not be true of violent and drug-related crimes
    - - Wilson and Kelly argue that ‘broken windows’ that are not dealt with send out a signal that no one cares, prompting a spiral of decline.
        
        An absence of both formal control and informal control means members of the community, feel intimidated and powerless
        
        The solution is to crack down on any disorder throughout and environmental improvement strategy and a zero tolerance policing strategy. This will halt, neighbourhood decline and prevent serious crime taking route.
    - - rather than emphasising, policing, the strategies emphasise dealing with the social conditions that predispose some individuals to future crime.
        
        Because poverty is a cause of crime, general social policies may have a crime prevention role
        
        The Perry preschool project in Michigan gave an experimental group of disadvantage 3 to 4–year-olds, a two-year intellectual enrichment program. The longitudinal study, following their progress into adulthood showed far fewer arrest for violent crime, property crime and drug is compared with peers, not in the project.
  - - - Foucaults discipline and punish contrast to different forms of power
        
        Sovereign power in pre-modern society, the monarch exercised physical power over peoples bodies and punishment was a visible spectacle.
        
        disciplinary power becomes dominant from the 19th century and seeks to govern not just a body but also the mind through surveillance. Foucault uses the Panopticon to illustrate this
        
        The Panopticon is a prison, where prisoners cells are visible to the guards, for the guards are not visible to the prisoners. Not knowing if they are being watched, means prisoners must constantly behave as if they. Surveillance turns into self surveillance, control becomes invisible.
        
        He argues that other institutions follow this pattern and disciplinary power, and has now infiltrated every part of society, bringing it affects to the human soul itself
    - - Mathiesen argues that in late modernity, there is an increase in both the top down, surveillance that Foucault discusses, and in surveillance from below. Mathiesen cause this, the synopticon - where everybody watch is everybody.
        
        this includes media scrutiny of powerful groups and members of the public monitoring each other or filming police wrongdoing
    - - Haggerty and Ericson point out that surveillance technology now involves manipulation of digital data rather than physical bodies
        
        They note that the trend towards combining different technologies into powerful surveillance assemblages e.g. CCTV footage can be analysed using facial recognition software.
    - - Feeley and Simon see actuarial justice as a new form of surveillance. It uses actuarial analysis (statistical calculations of risk) to predict the likelihood of people offending
        Unlike disciplinary power that focuses on groups and individuals, it is not interested in rehabilitating offenders, but simply in preventing them from offending.
        Individuals can be profiled using the defender risk factors, giving each person a risk score. Anyone scoring a bother given level can be stopped or questioned etc
        According to Lyon, the purpose of this social sorting is to categorise people, so they can be treated differently according to the level of risk they pose
        However, offender profiles are often compiled using official statistics, which show certain groups as more likely to offend. Profiling leads to police targeting these groups, who are those more likely to be caught and convicted.
    - - Norris and Armstrong found that CCTV operator is target young black males based on racist stereotypes. This creates a self-fulfilling prophecy: criminalisation of black youths is increased because their offences are revealed while criminalisation of others, are lessened because theirs are ignored
  - - - there are different justification for punishment and a link to different penal policies:
        
        deterrence, punishment, they prevent future crime from fear of further punishment
        
        Rehabilitation, reforming offenders, so they no longer offend
        
        incapacitation, removing the offenders capacity to reoffend
        -retribution, the idea that society is entitled to take revenge for the offender having breached its moral code
    - - Durkheim argues that the function of punishment is to uphold social solidarity and reinforce shared values by expressing society moral outrage at the offence.
        Durkheim identifies two types of justice, corresponding to 2 types of society:
        
        retributive justice: traditional society has a strong collective conscience, so punishment is severe and vengeful
        
        restitutive justice: in modern society, there is extensive interdependence between individuals. Crime damages this and the function of justice should be to repair the damage.
    - - punishment is part of the repressive state apparatus that defends ruling class property against the lower classes.
        
        The form of punishment reflects the economic base of society
        
        Under capitalism, imprisonment becomes the dominant punishment because in the capitalist economy time is money and offenders pay by doing time
    - - The changing role of prisons:
        Preindustrial Europe had a wide range of punishments. Prison was used, mainly for holding offenders prior to punishment
        
        Only later, imprisonment is seen as a form of punishment itself
        
        In liberal democracies imprisonment is often seen as most severe form of punishment, but as most prisoners reoffend, it may be a way of making bad people worse
        
        Since the 1980s, there has been a move towards populist punitiveness. Politicians called for tougher sentences, leading to a rising prison population. UK in prison, is a higher proportion of people than almost any other country in western Europe.
        
        Most prisoners are young male and poorly educated ethnic minorities are over represented
      - Transcarceration:
        There is a trend towards transcareration (moving people between different prisonlike institutions)
        
        There has been a blurring of boundaries between criminal justice and welfare agencies
      - Alternatives to prison:
        recently there has been a gross in the range of community-based controls
        
        Cohen argues that this has simply cast net of control over more people. Rather than diverting young people away from the criminal justice system community controls may divert them into it.
  - - - One definition of victims is those who have suffered harm through acts that violate the laws of the state
        
        However, Christie argues that victim is a socially constructed category
        There are two approaches to victimology: positivist and critical
    - - positivist victimology focuses on interpersonal crimes of violence. It seeks patterns in victimisation aims to identify the characteristics of victims, the contrary to the victimisation.
        
        victim proneness the characteristics that make victims different from and more vulnerable than non-victims
        
        victim precipitation Wolfgangs study of, 588, homicides found that 26% involved, the victim trigger in the event leading to the murder e.g being the 1st to use violence
    - - structural factors e.g patriarchy and poverty, place, powerless groups, such as women and the pool at greater risk of victimisation
        
        Through the criminal justice process, the state applies the label of victim to some but with hold it for others
        
        Tombs and Whyte show that employers violations of the law leading to death or injury to workers are often explained as the fault of accidental prone workers
    - - Repeat victimisation A mere 4% of the population are victims of 44% of all crimes. Less powerful groups are more likely to repeat victims.
        Class the poor are more likely to be victims
        Age the young are more vulnerable to assault, sexual harassment, theft and abuse at home
        Ethnicity minority groups that are greater risk than white people of being victims of crime in general and of racially motivated crime
        Gender males are at greater risk of violent acts; females are more likely to be victims of domestic and sexual violence, stalking and harassment
    - - crime may have a serious physical or emotional impact on its victim
        
        Crime may also create indirect victims
        
        Hate crimes against minorities may create waves of harm that radiate out intimidate, whole communities not just a primary victim
        
        Secondary victimisation: in addition to the impact of the crime itself, individuals may suffer further victimisation in the CJS e.g. Rape victims
        
        Crime may create fear of becoming a victim, even if such fears are irrational