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10 system in human body, splits, pepsin, Rennin, pesin, Enterokinase,…

- - - - It is the breaking down of food into small pieces.
      - No enzyme is used.
      - Allows chemical digestion to occur faster.
      - Increases the surface area of the food.
    - - Physical digestion takes place through the muscles in the stomach
      - The breakdown of food by chewing
      - The conversion of fats into oil droplets with bile
  - - - It is the separation of large-molecule nutrients into monomers using enzymes and water.The aim is to make the nutrients able to pass through the cell membrane. ATP is not consumed, activation energy is met from ambient temperature.
    - - DIGESTION Of LIPID
        
        in small intestines
        
        Fat droplets--------> Glycerol + 3 fatty acids
      - DIGESTION OF CARBOHYDRATES
        
        in mouth
        
        Starch or Glycogen + water----------->Maltose + Dextrin
        
        in small intestines
        
        Sucrose + water -------------->Glucose + Fructose
        
        Maltose + water -------------->Glucose + Fructose
        
        Starch or Glycogen + water----------->Maltose + Dextrin
        
        Dextrin + (n-1) water -------------->(n) Glucose
        
        Lactose + water --------------->Glucose + Fructose
      - DIGESTION OF PROTEINS
        
        in stomach
        
        Pepsinogen (inactive) + HCl --->Pepsin (active enzyme)
        
        Milk ------------->Casein + Water
        
        Protein + water --------->Polypeptides + Aminoacids
        
        Casein + water--------------> Small polypeptides
        
        in small intestines
        
        Chymotrypsinogen----------------------> Chymotrypsin
        
        Small polypeptides + water --------------------------->Smaller polypeptides + Aminoacids
        
        Trypsinogen ------------>Trypsin
        
        Smaller polypeptides + water----------------------------------------> Tripeptides + Dipeptides + Aminoacids
        
        Tripeptides + Dipeptides + water-------------------> Aminoacids
  - - - Esophagus
        
        The esophagus is just the connection between the pharynx and the stomach. It has smooth muscle that contracts in order to allow the food to pass through the esophageal sphincter, which is the part of the esophagus that separates it from the environment of the stomach.
        
        4.Stomach
        
        The stomach holds the food after it has passed down the esophagus. The three main roles of the stomach are to store the food prior to being digested, to secrete enzymes and hydrochloric acid so the food is more digestible, and to keep the food from dumping into the small intestines all at once.
        
        The stomach is where chemical digestion mainly happens, especially that of protein. It does that by secreting almost two liters of hydrochloric acid daily, which contains pepsin and other liquids that are a part of the gastric fluids. The gastric fluid is highly acidic; it kills the bacteria if there are some bad ones from foods.
        
        The stomach lining is coated with a thick type of mucus that prevents erosion of the stomach lining by the hydrochloric acid. If there is too much acid or not enough mucus, people can get gastric ulcers. Things like smoking, stress, alcohol, and heredity can contribute to getting gastric ulcers. The food remains in the stomach for at least 3-4 hours before the pyloric sphincter opens up to allow the partially digested food to enter the small intestines.
        
        Small Intestines
        
        The small intestines are made from three parts. These include the duodenum, the jejunum, and the ileum. The duodenum takes on about 9 liters of fluid per day. The liver and pancreas play big roles in secreting substances that aid in duodenal digestion. The jejunum and ileum don’t do much digestion; they are, instead, involved in absorption of the smallest food molecules.
        
        The small intestines are about 7 meters long and are coiled up inside the abdomen. Inside the lining of the small intestines are villi, which are small projections that increase the surface area so absorption can take place quickly. By this time, the food is broken down into its smallest form so it can be easily absorbed by the microvilli.
        
        Large Intestines
        
        Rectum
        
        The rectum is the last portion of the digestive system. It acts as a place to hold stool before it is finally defecated.
        
        The large intestine or colon takes whatever material isn’t absorbed in the small intestines. There are very little nutrients in the colon; there is only undigested food material, cellulose and water left over. The colon is responsible for absorbing water from the lumen, so the stool can form.
      - The pharynx is the place where food is swallowed. The pharynx is the part of the digestive tract that leads to the esophagus. The epiglottis is located within the pharynx. Its job is to close so that food doesn’t enter the trachea during the act of swallowing.
  - - - Bile is made in the liver and stored and concentrated in the gallbladder. The composition of bile is water, bile salts, bilirubin, cholesterol, bile pigments and sodium bicarbonate ions. Bile is released from gall bladder through Ampulla of Vater into duodenum.
    - - Pancreas has both endocrine and exocrine gland function, it is called mixed type gland. The exocrine gland function; When acidic chyme arrives small intestine, small intestine secretes hormones which stimulates acinar cells in pancreas and produce pancreatic juice which includes digestive enzymes. Pancreatic juice is released from pancreas through Ampulla of Vater into duodenum.
      - Pancreatic juice includes;
        
        • bicarbonate ions,
        
        • amylase enzyme which digests carbohydrates,
        
        • lipase enzyme which digests fats,
        
        • chymotyrpsinogen, trypsinogen which digests proteins
        
        • nuclease which digests nucleic acids.
    - - Parotid gland
        
        Secretions amylase
        
        starts chemical digestion of starch
      - Sublingual gland
        
        Secretions mucus
        
        moistens and lubricates food
      - Submandibular gland
        
        Secretions serous
        
        helps tasting food.
      - Saliva contains amylase, which breaks down starches into sugars.
    - - Formation of bile which is then stored in gall bladder.
- - - - – Ependymal cells promote circulation of cerebrospinal fluid.
      - – Microglia protect the nervous system from microorganisms.
      - – Oligodendrocytes and Schwann cells form the myelin sheaths around axons
      - – Astrocytes provide structural support for neurons, regulate extracellular ions and neurotransmitters, and induce the formation of a blood-brain barrier that regulates the chemical environment of the CNS
      - – Radial glia play a role in the embryonic development of the nervous system.
  - - - • Receive information from the environment
      - • Process the information and produce electrical signals
      - • Conduct electrical signals over distances to a junction where it meets another cell
      - • Transmit information to other neurons, muscles, or glands
    - - Dendrites
        
        Dendrites:highly branched extensions that receive signals from receptors or other neurons.
        
        o Their branches provide a large surface area for receiving signals, either from the environment or from other neurons
        
        o Dendrites of sensory neurons respond to specific stimuli, such as pressure, odor, light, body temperature, blood pH, or the position of a joint
        
        o Dendrites of neurons in the brain and spinal cord usually respond to chemicals, called neurotransmitters, that are released by other neurons
      - • A cell body
        
        Cell body: processes signals from the dendrites
        
        o Most of a neuron’s organelles like mitochondria, ribosome, ER and nucleus present there.
        
        o Some neurons may have more than one nucleus.
        
        o Neurons lack centrosomes so they have limited ability for cell division.
      - • An axon
        
        Axon (conduct action potentials)
        
        Axon: is typically a much longer and unbranched extension that transmits signals to other cells at synapses
        
        o It extends outward from the cell body and conducts action potentials from the cell body to synaptic terminals at the axon’s end
        
        o Different neurons differ in axon length.
        
        o An axon joins the cell body at the axon hillock
        
        o Axons are typically bundled together into nerves, much like wires are bundled within an electrical cable.
      - • Synaptic terminals
        
        o At synapses, signals are transmitted from one cell to another
        
        o The site where a neuron communicates with another cell is called a synapse
        
        o A typical synapse consists of:
        
        – The synaptic terminal, which is a swelling at the end of an axon of the “sending” neuron
        
        – A dendrite or cell body of a “receiving” neuron, muscle, or gland cell
        
        – A small gap separating the two cells.
        
        At synapses, signals are transmitted from one cell to another.
        
        o Most synaptic terminals contain neurotransmitters that are released in response to an action potential reaching the terminal
        
        o The plasma membrane of the receiving neuron bears receptors that bind the neurotransmitters and stimulate a response in this cell
        
        o Therefore, at a synapse, the output of the first cell becomes the input to the second cell.
    - - Association (inter) neuron
        
        – smaller than sensory and motor neurons
        
        – only they are found in brain and spinal cord
        
        – both long and short axons and dendrites
        
        – connects sensory and motor neurons and integrate the information
      - Motor (efferent) neuron
        
        – connnected to an effector (muscle, fibre or gland)
        
        – short dendrite, long axon
        
        – signal causes effector to react (eg. muscle to contract, glands to secrete)
        
        – cell body is inside CNS
        
        – message is travelling away from the brain
      - Sensory (afferent) neuron
        
        – starts with a sensory receptor (pressure, heat, light etc)
        
        – message travels towards CNS
        
        – cell body is outside CNS in Ganglia
        
        – long dendrite, short axon
    - - The nerve impulses are transmitted by electrochemically. The impulses are carried electrically through one neuron. Neurons use chemicals to communicate with one another at synapses.
      - Polarization:At resting state, cells have a polarity because the amount of positively and negatively charged ions is not equal in either sides of the cells.
        
        o Messages are transmitted as changes in membrane potential.
        
        An unstimulated, resting neuron maintains a constant electrical voltage difference, or potential, across its plasma membrane, called a resting potential.
        
        o The voltage inside the cell is always negative and the resting potential of a neuron is -70mV.
        
        o Every cell has a voltage (difference in electrical charge) across its plasma membrane called a membrane potential.
      - Depolarization: Sending an impulse
        
        o When a nerve cell receives a stimulus, the polarity of the membrane is reversed. This means outside becomes negative while inside becomes positive.
        
        The minimum amount of stimulus strength which can create a nerve impulse is called as threshold
        level.
        
        Below threshold level, the nerve cell does not respond the stimulus. This situation is known as "All
        or None Response".
        
        If the membrane potential becomes less negative, it reaches a level called threshold and triggers an
        action potential.
        
        Action Potentials
        
        o When a stimulus depolarizes the membrane of a neuron, Na+ channels open, allowing Na+ to diffuse into the cell.
        
        o The movement of Na+ into the cell increases the depolarization and causes even more Na+ channels to open.
        
        o A strong stimulus (-55mV) results in a massive change in membrane voltage called an action potential.
        
        o During an action potential, the membrane potential rises rapidly to +50 mV inside the cell, then returns to resting potential.
        
        o The action potential signal flows down the axon to the synaptic terminals with no change in voltage from the cell body to the synaptic terminals.
        
        Action potentials are signals that carry information along axons. An action potential is a brief all-or-none depolarization of a neuron’s plasma membrane. At all the cases, the transmission of the impulse is the same along a nerve cell.
        
        Conduction of Action Potentials
        
        Factors affect impulse conduction speed
        
        5 more items...
        
        An action potential can travel long distances by regenerating itself along the axon. At the site where the action potential is generated, usually the axon hillock, an electrical current depolarizes the neighboring region of the axon membrane. Inactivated Na+ channels behind the zone of depolarization prevent the action potential from traveling backwards. Action potentials travel in only one direction: toward the synaptic terminals.
        
        o This process is known as depolarization
        
        o Depolarization occurs if gated Na+ channels open and Na+
        
        diffuses into the cell
        
        3,5:Hyperpolarization
        
        o When gated K+ channels open, K+ diffuses out, making the inside of the cell more negative
        
        .4. Repolarization: return to the resting potential
        
        After the passage of impulse, the polarity of the membrane at this point returns to the original state. This process is called repolarization. Repolarization occurs if gated K+ channels open and K+ diffuses out of the cell. The Na+ - K+ pumps start to work again to provide – 70mV. So, this repolarized point allows the passage of new impulse. Without repolarization, nerve cells do not respond a new impulse.
        
        o This is hyperpolarization, increase in membrane potential.
        
        o During the refractory period after an action potential, a second action potential cannot be initiated
        
        o The refractory period is a result of a temporary inactivation of the Na+ channels.
  - - - BRAIN
        
        The Midbrain
        
        • The midbrain contains clusters of neurons that contribute to movement, arousal and emotion.
        
        • Related with certain optic and auditory reflexes (pupil reflex, blinking, adjusting ear to the volume of sound).
        
        • The midbrain is quite small in humans, and contains an auditory relay center and clusters of neurons that control reflex movements of the eyes.
        
        The Hindbrain
        
        The medulla oblangata
        
        Pons
        
        Cerebellum
        
        Forebrain
        
        The cerebrum
        
        • The cerebrum consists of two cerebral hemispheres: right and left cerebral hemispheres.
        
        • In humans, the cerebral cortex is the largest and most complex part of the brain.
        
        • Each hemisphere is composed of an outer cerebral cortex, (gray matter) overlying white matter and basal nuclei. (NOTE:The basal nuclei are important centers for planning and learning movement sequences)
        
        • The cerebral cortex is the thin outer layer of each cerebral hemisphere, with billions of neurons packed in a highly organized way into a sheet just a few millimeters thick.
        
        • The cortex is folded into convolutions, which are raised, wrinkled ridges that increase its surface area.
        
        • A thick band of axons called the corpus callosum provides communication between the right and left cerebral cortices.
        
        cerebral cortex
        
        The Parietal Lobe assists in sensory processes -perception by the skin of touch, pain,temperature, pressure- , attention, and language comprehension.
        
        The Occipital Lobe processes visual information and passes its conclusions to the parietal and temporal lobes.
        
        The Frontal Lobe assists in motor control and cognitive activities, such as planning, making decisions, setting goals, and relating the present to the future through purposeful behavior.
        
        The Temporal Lobe assists in auditory perception, language comprehension, and visual recognition.
        
        The diencephalon
        
        Thalamus is a complex relay station that channels all sensory information, except olfaction, from all parts of the body to the cerebral cortex. Signals traveling from the spinal cord, cerebellum, medulla, pons, and reticular formation also pass through the thalamus.
        
        hypothalamus.
        
        Regulates basic survival behaviors such as feeding, fighting, fleeing, and reproducing.
        
        Epithalamus includes the pineal gland and generates cerebrospinal fluid from blood. The hormone melatonin is released by the pineal gland and plays a role in bird and mammal sleep cycles.
      - SPİNAL CORD
        
        In the center of the spinal cord is a butterfly-shaped area of gray matter. This consists of the cell bodies of motor neurons that control voluntary muscles and the autonomic nervous system, plus interneurons that communicate with the brain and other parts of the spinal cord.
        The gray matter is surrounded by white matter, which contains myelin-coated axons of neurons that extend up or down the spinal cord. These axons carry sensory signals from internal organs, muscles, and the skin up to the brain. Axons also extend downward from the brain, carrying signals that direct the motor portions of the peripheral nervous system.
        
        conduct signal to and from brain; control reflex activities
      - The CNS receives and
        processes sensory information, generates thoughts, and directs responses.
    - - Somatic Nervous System
        
        controls voluntary movement.
      - Autonomic Nervous System
        
        ii. Parasympathetic Division
        
        The neurons of the parasympathetic division release acetylcholine onto their target organs.
        
        o The parasympathetic division controls maintenance activities that can be carried out at leisure, often called “rest and digest”.
        
        o Under parasympathetic control, the digestive tract becomes active, the heart rate slows, and air passages in the lungs constrict, because the body requires less blood flow and less oxygen.
        
        i.Sympathetic Division
        
        release the neurotransmitter norepinephrine onto their target organs, preparing the body for stressful or energetic actions.
        
        o During these activities, it directs some of the blood supply from the digestive tract to the muscles of the arms and legs
        
        o The heart rate accelerates, the pupils of the eyes open wider, and the air passages in the lungs expand.
        
        controls involuntary actions.
- - - - vein: They are the vessels that bring the blood collected from the body to the right atrium of the heart. The direction of blood flow is from the body to the heart. All veins in the body, except the pulmonary vein, carry dirty blood. The pulmonary vein carries clean blood.Veins, like arteries, consist of three layers from the outside to the inside.
        
        The outer connective tissue fibers are less.
        
        -Muscle tissue is thin.
        
        There are no elastic fibers in the middle layer.
        
        Factors affecting the return of blood in the vein to the heart:
        
        During contraction and relaxation of skeletal muscles, the compression of the vessels by pressing the muscles
        
        Suction pressure during relaxation of the auricles
        
        Pressure changes in the rib cage during breathing
        
        The pushing pressure of the blood inside the arteries and capillaries
        
        Gravitational force for veins in the upper body
        
        Most of the veins below the level of the heart have one-way valves that prevent the back flow of blood
      - Capillaries
        
        It is usually located between arteries and veins.
        
        It consists of a single layer of squamous epithelial tissue (endothelium).
        
        Provides exchange of substances between blood and tissue fluid.
        
        -They are the vessels with the slowest blood flow rate due to the widest total diameter area (total surface) .
      - Arteries:These are the vessels that carry blood from the heart to other organs. The direction of blood flow is from the heart to the body.
        
        All arteries in the body except the pulmonary artery carries oxygen-rich blood (pure blood). The pulmonary artery takes the dirty blood (blood with high CO2 concentration) from the heart to the lungs for cleaning. Arteries are named according to the organ they carry blood. (For example, the vessel that carries blood to the lungs is called the pulmonary artery.) Arteries consist of three layers from the outside to the inside.
        
        layers
        
        a. Outer layer: It is made of fibrous connective tissue and provides the vessel to be resistant to blood pressure.
        
        b. Middle layer: Composed of smooth muscles. The elastic fibers in this layer facilitate the movement of blood with the flexibility it gives to the vessels.
        
        c. Inner (endothelial) layer : It consists of a single layer of squamous epithelial tissue. The endothelium creates a slippery surface that allows blood to move easily.
        
        The factors that provide the movement of blood in the arteries;
        
        -Blood pressure caused by the contraction of the ventricles,
        
        -Contraction and relaxation of smooth muscles in the vessel wall,
        
        -Blood coming from behind pushes blood from front
        
        -The effect of gravity on the veins descending from the heart
      - Comparison of Vessel Types
        
        Blood flow rate change:
        Artery > Capillaries > Veins
        
        Total Cross-sectional Area of Vessels in the Body:
        Capillaries>Veins>Artery
        
        Blood Pressure change:
        Artery > Capillaries > Veins
        
        Arrangement of a vessel according to its diameter area:
        Vein > Artery > Capillary
        
        The order according to the thickness of the vessel wall (wall): Artery>Vein>Capillary
    - - -The heart is a muscular organ approximately the size of a fist, located in the center of the thoracic cavity, below the breastbone, closer to the left lung.
      - -The heart consists of four chambers, two at the top and two at the bottom.
      - -Clean blood (oxygen-rich blood) is found in the left atrium and left ventricle, and dirty blood (blood rich in carbon dioxide) is found in the right atrium and right ventricle.
      - Valves are found between the auricles and the ventricles and at the points where the arteries exit the ventricles.
      - There are three types of valves in the heart.
        
        a. Tricuspid (triple valve: It is the valve between the right atrium and the right ventricle that opens towards the ventricle. It prevents blood from returning to the right atrium from the right ventricle.
        
        b. Bicuspid (bicuspid valve = mitral): It is the valve that opens towards the ventricle between the left atrium and the left ventricle. It prevents blood from returning from the left ventricle to the left atrium.
        
        c. Half-moon valves: Located at the beginning of the aorta and pulmonary arteries that carry blood out of the heart. It prevents the blood pumped from the heart to the arteries from returning to the heart.
      - The heart consists of a three-layered structure called
        
        a. Pericardium (outer layer): A double layer of connective tissue that surrounds the outside of the heart. In between is a fluid that reduces friction.
        
        b. Myocardium (middle layer): It is the layer of cardiac muscle, whose structure is striated muscle, and whose work is similar to smooth muscle . It is thin in the auricles and thick in the ventricles. The left ventricle is thicker than the right ventricle.
        
        c. Endocardium (inner layer): It is composed of a single layer of squamous epithelial tissue. This layer covers the inner surface of the heart. It creates a slippery structure that prevents abrasion. It facilitates blood flow. There are no blood vessels.
      - Working Mechanism of the Heart
        
        -The work of the heart takes place by the contraction and relaxation of the heart muscles. The contraction of the heart muscle is called systole and its relaxation is called diastole .
        
        -While the atria of the heart contract at the same time, the ventricles relax, and when the ventricles contract, the atria relax.
        
        -The heart of a healthy adult person beats 70-80 times per minute.
        
        -Each heartbeat lasts about 0.85 s. The contraction of the atria takes 0.15 s, and the contraction of the ventricles takes 0.30 s. In the remaining 0.40 s, the heart rests.
        
        Special structures that regulate the rhythmic work of the heart
        
        Sinoatrial (SA) node: It is located in the right atrium wall, near the region where the upper main vein enters the heart. When stimulated by the autonomic nervous system, it produces electrical impulses that initiate the work of the heart. It regulates the contraction of heart muscle cells by producing electricity like a generator. The SA node also controls the contraction rhythm. The atria are contracted by the stimulus from the SA node.
        
        Atrioventricular (AV) node: It is located between the right atrium and the right ventricle. Receives alerts from the SA node.
        
        His bundles: They are specialized muscle filaments emerging from the AV node. Transmits stimuli to Purkinje fibres.
        
        Purkinje fibers: These are fibers formed by the branching of his bundles in the wall of the ventricles. It transmits the stimuli it receives from the his bundles to the ventricles and causes them to contract.
        
        Factors that accelerate the work of the heart
        
        Sympathetic nerves
        
        Adrenaline hormone
        
        Thyroxine hormone
        
        CO 2 increase in blood (lower blood pH).
        
        Increased body temperature
        
        Nicotine, caffeine etc chemicals and drugs
        
        Reduced ambient temperature
        
        Factors that slow down the work of the heart
        
        Acetylcholine secreted by parasympathetic nerve (vagus nerve) stimulation.
        
        Decreased body temperature
        
        A certain increase in ambient temperature.
        
        Deficiency of minerals such as Ca ++ .
    - - A. DUTIES OF THE BLOOD
        
        Transport task: It carries the oxygen it receives from the lungs and the nutrient monomers formed as a result of digestion to the cells. It transports metabolic wastes to excretory organs such as kidney, lung and skin. It carries the hormones produced by the glands to the target cells.
        
        Regulatory task: It regulates the body's water, electrolyte and pH balance. It allows the heat generated to be distributed throughout the body.
        
        Defense duty: Blood neutralizes harmful substances entering the body. This is achieved by the white blood cells and antibodies in the blood.
        
        Protective duty: In case of injury, it both stops bleeding and prevents microbes from entering through the wound opening by coagulating. Heparin prevents blood from clotting in the vein
      - B. STRUCTURE OF BLOOD
        
        a. Plasma: The liquid intermediate of blood tissue is called plasma . Plasma is yellow in color due to the dissolved proteins present in it.
        
        -About 90% of the blood plasma is water, 7% is protein (albumin, globulin, fibrinogen), the rest is hormone, antibody, vitamin, amino acid, carbohydrate, fat, urea, uric acid, enzyme (except digestive enzyme) It consists of organic substances such as sodium, chlorine, magnesium, bicarbonate and ions.
        
        -Blood proteins;
        
        -Albumin; It regulates the water ratio of blood and body fluid, that is, the osmotic pressure.
        
        Globulin; It creates the antibody structure.
        
        Fibriniogen and prothrombin; It allows the blood to clot outside the vein. It is produced in the liver.
        
        Histamine: Increases the permeability of capillaries.
        
        b. Blood Cells: The cellular part that makes up 45% of the blood consists of red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes) and platelets (platelets).
        
        I. Red blood cells (erythrocytes): They are the most abundant blood cells.They cannot move actively, they are carried from one place to another by blood flow.They contain hemoglobin, which gives blood its red color.It takes part in the transport of hemoglobin, oxygen and carbon dioxide
        
        II. White blood cells (Leukocytes):They are colorless blood cells. They have nuclei and organelles. It can form pseudo-feet like amoeba and spread between tissues with active movements. Their lifespan generally varies between 4 hours and 4 days. It is produced in the red bone marrow, thymus gland, lymph nodes and spleen.
        
        -Duties; to protect the body against microorganisms.
        
        III. Blood Platelets (Platelets):150 to 400 thousand are found in 1 mm 3 blood. It is colorless and seedless and consists of fragments that break off from large cells in the bone marrow. They cannot go out of the vein. It produces a special protein involved in blood coagulation. Their lifespan is about 7-10 days. Platelets that have completed their lifespan are broken down in the liver and spleen.
        
        C. BLOOD COAT MECHANISM
        
        If the vascular damage is minor, only the platelet plug completely stops blood loss.
        
        If the damage is large;
        
        1Thromboplastin is secreted from the platelets and the damaged vessel wall.
        
        Thromboplastin converts inactive prothrombin in plasma to thrombin. (This event occurs with the effect of Ca ++ , vitamin K and O2 . )
        
        Thrombin converts the inactive fibrinogen in the blood plasma into fibrin filaments.
        
        The network formed by the fibrin filaments adheres to the platelet plug, engulfing the blood cells and plasma, forming the clot .
      - D. BLOOD GROUPS:In humans, blood groups are determined by the protein structures found on the membrane surfaces of red blood cells. The glycoproteins on the membrane surfaces of the red blood cells, which determine the blood group, are called antigens .
        
        Antigen: Protein-structured molecules that stimulate antibody formation when given to a living thing.
        
        Antibody: Defensive proteins formed against antigens
        
        type of blood
        
        A
        
        B
        
        0
        
        AB
- - - - Exocrine gland
        
        Pituitary Gland
        
        anterior pituitary lobe
        
        STH
        
        • It provides the elongation of the long bones, controls the growth of the muscles.
        
        • Increases protein synthesis, affects fat and carbohydrate metabolism.
        
        • During growth, excessive oscillation causes gigantism (gigantism), and under sway causes dwarfism (nanism = dwarfism).
        
        • If it is secreted too much after the age of 25, elongation is seen on the hands, feet, nose and face (acromegaly
        
        Reproductive Hormones
        
        FSH (Follicle Stimulating Hormone): It affects egg maturation by stimulating the follicles in the ovary in females. It controls the production of sperm (spermatogenesis) and the secretion of testosterone in men.
        
        • LH (Luteinizing Hormone): It provides ovulation in females (the egg is thrown from the ovary to the oviduct) and the hormone-secreting structure called the yolk body is formed. It stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone in men.
        
        • LTH (Luteotropic hormone = Prolactin): It ensures the development of the mammary glands during pregnancy and after birth, the flow of milk from the breast and the feeling of motherhood. LTH also keeps the yellow body in the ovary intact.
        
        TSH (Thyroid Stimulating Hormone = Thyrotropin): It stimulates the thyroid gland to release the Thyroxine hormone.
        
        ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): It controls the secretion of Aldosterone and Cortisol hormones by stimulating the shell part of the adrenal gland.
        
        MSH (Melanocyte Stimulating Hormone): Melanin pigment controls its formation. This pigment is used in the tanning of the skin.effective
        
        Pituitary Posterior Lobe
        
        ADH: Helps water balance
        
        Less Secreted
        
        • Water reabsorption is reduced
        
        • The water excreted in urine increases
        
        • Hypotonic urine occurs
        
        • As a result, the amount of water in the blood decreases. This disease in the form of frequent urination and drinking a lot of water is called Diabetes insipidus (sugarless diabetes)
        
        More secreted
        
        • Water reabsorption increases
        
        • The water excreted in the urine decreases
        
        • Hypertonic urine occurs
        
        Oxytocin: By stimulating the contraction of smooth muscles, it increases uterine contractions, especially during labor, and facilitates delivery. It also aids in the expulsion of milk.
        
        Thyroid Gland
        
        • The thyroid gland is a two-lobed gland located in the larynx in humans.
        
        • TSH controls the secretion of thyroxine hormone from the thyroid gland.
        
        • Low secretion of thyroid hormones in humans is known as hypothyroidism. In this case, the basal metabolic rate slows down. Symptoms such as weight gain, exhaustion, and cold intolerance in adults are observed.
        
        • It causes cretinism, which is manifested by thyroid deficiency, skeletal and mental retardation in the fetus, infancy or childhood.
        
        • Iodine is required for the production of thyroid hormone. In the case of insufficient production of thyroid hormones due to iodine deficiency, continuous secretion of TSH from the anterior pituitary causes enlargement of the thyroid gland. This condition is called simple goiter.
        
        • Thyroxine and calcitonin hormones are secreted from the thyroid gland.
        
        hormones
        
        Calcitonin (Tyrocalcitonin): It has the effect of lowering the amount of Ca++ in the blood. Working together with vitamin D, it ensures the passage of calcium from the blood to the bones. This hormone works together (oppositely) with the hormones of the parathyroid gland.
        
        Thyroxine: It is an amino acid derivative hormone containing iodine. It regulates the rate of oxidation (respiration with O2) in cells in multicellular organisms. It also controls protein synthesis and mental functions.
        
        If too much thyroxine is secreted
        
        • Oxygen O2 consumption in cells increases
        
        • Oxygen respiration rate increases
        
        • Metabolism accelerates
        
        • Weight loss begins
        
        If too less thyroxine is secreted
        
        • Oxygen O2 consumption in cells decreases
        
        • The rate of aerobic respiration decreases
        
        • Metabolism slows down
        
        • Weight gain begins
        
        Adrenal Glands
        
        Adrenal medulla: The epinephrine (adrenaline) secreted from here, by running the sympathetic nerves;
        
        • Accelerates the heartbeat,
        
        • It raises blood pressure.
        
        • It straightens hair and body hair.
        
        • It enlarges the pupils.
        
        • It stimulates the conversion (destruction) of glycogen into glucose in the liver and muscles.
        
        As a result of these;
        
        • More blood goes to the brain.
        
        • Blood clotting time is shortened.
        
        • The body's resistance to fatigue increases.
        
        • ACTH secretion of the pituitary is stimulated.
        
        • Blood sugar increases.
        
        hormone
        
        Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline); by constricting blood vessels
        raises blood pressure.
        
        Adrenal Cortex
        
        hormones
        
        cortisol
        
        • It is effective in carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism.
        
        • It causes protein and fats to be broken down into glucose.
        
        • It increases the glucose level in the blood by giving the formed glucose to the blood.
        
        • Cortisol has anti-allergic and anti-inflammatory effects.
        
        • Cortisol has a suppressive effect on the immune system.
        
        aldosterone
        
        • It provides reabsorption of sodium (Na + ) and water from the kidneys and stimulates the excretion of potassium (K + ). Thus, the volume and pressure of the blood are increased.
        
        • Aldosterone excess causes Na + accumulation and K + excretion in the body. In this case, hyperpolarization is observed in the membranes of muscle and nerve cells. As a result, muscle weakness occurs due to insufficient stimulation in the muscles. High blood pressure is observed due to the increase in blood volume and pressure due to the Na+ ion in the blood.
        
        • In case of low secretion of aldosterone, the potassium (K + ) concentration rises above normal. Heart contraction weakens and blood pressure drops. This disease, which is seen in the form of muscle fatigue and pigmentation on the skin, is called Addison's disease (bronze disease).
        
        Parathyroid Gland
        
        They are four small glands found as the Parathyroid Gland. They secrete parathormone.
        
        This hormone accelerates the passage of Ca++ from the bones and intestinal epithelium to the blood. It regulates Ca++ and P metabolism in the body.
        
        fuctions
        
        • It provides the absorption of calcium ions from the foods that are digested in the small intestines into the blood.
        
        • It regulates the Ca++ and phosphate balance in the blood and keeps the calcium at a certain level.
        
        • It ensures the reabsorption of calcium ions from the kidney tubes into the blood.
        
        • Provides calcium passage from bones to blood when necessary
        
        Thymus Gland
        
        • It is the endocrine gland located on the breastbone.
        
        • It secretes a hormone called thymosin.
        
        • Thymus gland; It is thought to have an effect on the immune system by stimulating growth, reaching sexual maturity and stimulating T lymphocytes.
        
        Pineal Gland
        
        • It is the endocrine gland located between the hemispheres of the brain.
        
        • Its secretion is the hormone melatonin.
        
        • The hormone melatonin takes part in the coloring of the skin. Its main function is to regulate the biological rhythm of the body depending on the seasonal day length and light.
        
        • The amount of melatonin hormone secreted at night increases according to the length of the night. This hormone is secreted more at night and plays a role in the regulation of the body's biological rhythm.
      - Endocrine gland
        
        salivary glands
        
        sweat glands
        
        lacrimal glands
        
        mammary glands
      - Mixed gland
        
        pancreas
        
        a. External Secretion (Enzymes): Pancreatic juice, which constitutes the external secretion of the pancreas, carries enzymes that provide the digestion of all foods to the duodenum.
        
        b. Internal Secretion (Hormones): Hormones that make up the internal secretion of the pancreas are released into the blood. There are two types of cells in the islets of Langerhans. Alpha (a) cells secrete the hormone glucagon, and beta (b) cells secrete the hormone insulin.
        
        Insulin is secreted when the amount of glucose in the blood increases. Insulin allows glucose in the blood to pass into body cells. Glucose is stored as glycogen in muscle and liver cells. In this way, the glucose level in the blood is lowered.
        
        When the amount of glucose in the blood decreases, the hormone glucagon is secreted. The hormone glucagon provides the breakdown of glycogen stored in muscle and liver cells into glucose. Glucose formed in the liver is given to the blood, and the glucose level in the blood is increased.
        
        diseases
        
        Type I diabetes occurs due to the absence of insulin secretion. The immune system targets the pancreatic cells and the pancreas is unable to produce insulin. This autoimmune disorder occurs mostly in childhood. This disease is usually treated by injecting insulin several times a day.
        
        Type II diabetes mostly occurs with advancing age, hereditary factors, obesity, and sedentary living conditions. In this disease, the cell cannot respond to insulin, usually as a result of the differentiation of receptors in target cells. Most patients can keep their blood glucose level in balance with exercise and proper nutrition. The most important factor in the emergence of diabetes is genetic predisposition.
        
        Sexual Glands
        
        Testosterone (Androgen): Stimulates and maintains the development of masculine features
        
        Estrogen: Stimulates and maintains the development of female characteristics.
        
        Progesterone: It regulates the menstrual phase.
- - - - ✔ Osteocytes, which are bone tissue cells, are found in spaces called lacunae.
      - ✔ It has an intermediate called osein, which consists of organic and inorganic substances.
      - ✔ Outside the bones is the osseous membrane called the periosteum. It ensures the transverse growth and repair of the bone.
      - Types
        
        Tight (Hard) Bone Tissue
        
        ✔ It is found in the body of long bones, outside of short flat and irregularly shaped bones.
        
        ✔ Osteocytes have formed an annular appearance and are tightly bound.
        
        ✔ Haversian canals pass through the middle of the osteocytes. These channels are also connected to each other by Volkmann channels. Blood vessels and nerves pass through these channels.
        
        Spongy Bone Tissue
        ✔ At the end of the long bones; It is found in the interior of short, flat and irregularly shaped bones.
        ✔ It has a hollow structure. These spaces are filled with red bone marrow.
      - Duties
        
        ✔ Shapes the body and provides support.
        
        ✔ Provides movement with muscles and joints.
        
        ✔ Protects internal organs.
        
        ✔ Produces blood cells.
        
        ✔ Mineral stores.
      - ✔ In the embryonic period, the skeleton is made of cartilage. Later, ossification occurs and bone tissue is formed.
    - - Long Bone
        
        ✔ It is found in the arms and legs.
        
        ✔ There is an epiphyseal plate between the head and the trunk. It makes the bone grow.
        
        ✔ There is yellow bone marrow in the middle of the tight bone tissue.
      - Flat Bone
        
        ✔ Skull, ribs, scapula and hip bones are flat bones.
        
        ✔ They are flattened bones with less thickness.
      - Short Bone
        
        ✔ They are bones that are close to each other in length and width.
        
        ✔ Hand and ankle bones are short bones.
      - Irregular Shaped Bone
        
        ✔ They are similar in structure to short and flat bones.
        
        ✔ Vertebrae and some facial bones are irregularly shaped bones.
        
        ✔ Red bone marrow, firm bone tissue, spongy bone tissue, periosteum are common structures in all bones.
    - - ✔ Hormones
      - ✔ Vitamins
      - ✔ Minerals
      - ✔ Genetic Factors
      - ✔ Sunlight
      - ✔ Balanced Nutrition and Sports
  - - - Hyaline Cartilage: It is a pressure-resistant cartilage composed of many cells containing collagen fibers in its intermediate.
        ✔ It is found in the embryo skeleton, trachea, nose, articular heads of bones, rib ends.
      - Elastic Cartilage: It is flexible cartilage with elastic fibers in its intermediate.
        ✔ The auricle, ear canal, eustachian tube, epiglottis are found.
      - Fibrous Cartilage: It is a cartilage that is composed of a small number of cells with collagen fibers in its intermediate, resistant to pressure and tension.
        ✔ It is found in the intervertebral discs, in the joint areas of bones such as the collarbone.
  - - - Striated Muscle (Skeletal Muscle)
        
        ✔ It provides movement of the body with the skeletal system.
        
        ✔ Its cells are long, thin, cylindrical and multinucleated.
        
        ✔ It makes respiration with oxygen and lactic acid fermentation.
        
        ✔ Myofibrils make transverse banding.
        
        ✔ They are red in color because they contain myoglobin. (Oxygen-storing pigment)
        
        ✔ It works under the control of the brain, by the control of the somatic nerves at our will. (CNS) Stimulated only by nerve
        
        ✔ They work faster than smooth muscles, they get tired more quickly.
        
        ✔ Occurs in arthropods and vertebrates.
        
        Working Mechanism of Striated Muscles
        
        ✔ In order for any muscle to be stimulated, a stimulus of a certain intensity must reach the muscle.
        
        ✔ Like nerve cells, they work according to the all or nothing rule. The lowest stimulus intensity required for the muscle to produce a response is called the threshold value.
        
        ✔ Changes that occur in the muscle due to a stimulus sufficient to create a reaction occur in three phases. All of the phases that occur during the contraction and relaxation of the muscle are called muscle jerks.
        
        I. Waiting (Latin) Phase: It is the phase between the stimulation of the muscle and the onset of contraction.
        
        II. Contraction Phase: It is the phase in which the muscle contracts.
        
        III. Relaxation Phase: It is the phase where the muscle relaxes and returns to its original state. After the muscle relaxes, it rests until it is stimulated again.
        
        Physiological Tetanus: If the muscle is given too many stimuli at short intervals, the muscle remains contracted before it can achieve the relaxation phase. In this case, the muscle loses its flexibility and becomes rigid. This is called physiological tetanus.
        
        Contraction of Striated Muscle According to Huxley's Sliding Thread Model
        
        ✔ According to this model, contraction occurs when actin threads slide over myosin threads.
        
        ✔ The structure formed by actin and myosin threads is called actomyosin.
        
        striated muscle structures:
        
        A Band : It is the region where myosin and actin fibers are together. During contraction and relaxation, its length does not change and is always as long as the myosin filaments. It appears in dark color.
        
        H Band: Composed of myosin filaments only.
        
        Z Line: It is the line that crosses the actin filaments right in the middle.
        
        Sarcomere: It is the region between the two Z lines. It forms the contractile unit of the muscle.
        
        I Band: It is the region where only actin filaments are present. It appears in light color.
        
        Events Occurring During Contraction
        
        ✔ Z lines converge.
        
        ✔ Sarcomere narrows.
        
        ✔ The I Band gets shorter.
        
        ✔ The H Band gets shorter. (Invisible, disappears.)
        
        ✔ A Band does not change.
        
        ✔ The length of the muscle is shortened.
        
        Events During Relaxation
        
        ✔ Z lines diverge.
        
        ✔ Sarcomere enlarges.
        
        ✔ I Band lengthens.
        
        ✔ H Band lengthens.
        
        ✔ A Band does not change.
        
        ✔ The length of the muscle grows.
        
        Common Events During Contraction and Relaxation
        
        ✔ The length of the A band does not change.
        
        ✔ The mass and volume of the muscle does not change.
        
        ✔ Actin and myosin threads do not change in length.
        
        ✔ Breathing is done.
        
        ✔ ATP is consumed, CO2 and heat are produced.
        
        ✔ The location of myosin does not change, but the location of actin does
        
        Events During Muscle Work
        
        ✔ Muscles are stimulated by nerves coming from the brain.
        
        ✔ Neurotransmitter substances such as acetylcholine and noradrenaline are secreted from the nerve endings coming to the sarcolemma.
        
        ✔ These chemicals increase the permeability of the sarcolemma to Na+ ions. (Depolarization)
        
        ✔ Depolarization affects the sarcoplasmic reticulum in muscle cells, causing the release of Ca+2 ions onto actin and myosin threads.
        
        ✔ Ca+2 ions initiate the hydrolysis of ATP by activating the ATP synthase enzyme on myosin. As a result, ADP, P and energy are obtained.
        
        ✔ The released energy causes actins to slide on myosin and thus the muscle to contract.
        
        ✔ Later, Ca ions return to the sarcoplasmic reticulum by active transport and the muscle begins to relax. (At this time, energy is also consumed during muscle relaxation when active transport is performed.)
        
        ✔ Any metabolic disorder in the muscle causes Ca ions to leak out of the sarcoplasmic reticulum and cannot be taken up again in the endoplasmic reticulum. This causes the muscle to contract. It is the reason why all the muscles in the body harden after death. This is called the rigidity of death (Rigor Mortis).
      - Smooth Muscle
        
        ✔ Cells are shuttle-shaped and mononuclear.
        
        ✔ Myofibrils are not banded.
        
        ✔ They breathe with oxygen.
        
        ✔ They appear light in color as they do not contain myoglobin.
        
        ✔ They act against our will and are controlled by the autonomic nervous system.
        
        ✔ They work slower than striated muscles, they get tired later.
        
        ✔ Found around organs in invertebrates and vertebrates except arthropods.
      - heart muscle
        
        ✔ Structurally, it is similar to a striped case, and in operation it is similar to a flat case.
        
        ✔ They are muscle structures with smooth cylindrical structure and connected by branches. They can be single or dual core.
        
        ✔ Myofibrils show banding.
        
        ✔ They breathe with oxygen.
        
        ✔ They appear red because they carry myoglobin.
        
        ✔ It is only found in the heart.
        
        ✔ Controlled by the autonomic nervous system. They work involuntarily.
        
        ✔ Its work is fast but rhythmic.
    - - Antagonist Muscles: These are the muscles that work opposite each other. As one contracts, the other relaxes. Example: Muscles in the arms and legs
      - Synergid Muscles: Muscles that contract and relax at the same time: Example: Abdominal and back muscles
  - - - Movable Joint
        
        ✔ They are the joints with the highest mobility in the arms and legs.
        
        ✔ Articular cartilage is found on the articular surfaces of the bones. It prevents abrasion during the movement of bones.
        
        ✔ There is a joint capsule made of connective tissue in the joint area.
        
        ✔ There is a synovial membrane in the inner region of the joint capsule. Synovial fluid is produced from this membrane, which prevents the bones from being eroded during the movement of the joint.
      - Semi-Mobile Joint
        
        ✔ Joints with limited mobility according to movable joints.
        
        ✔ The neck is located between the thoracic and vertebrae.
        
        ✔ There are discs made of cartilage between the bones that prevent abrasion by rubbing.
      - Immovable Joint
        
        ✔ Joints that do not have the ability to move.
        
        ✔ The skull is located between the facial bones (except the lower jaw) and the hip bone.
        
        ✔ Bones are connected to each other in the form of saw teeth.
  - - - ✔ Cause: It is a disorder in the immune mechanism. There are many varieties. The most well-known is rheumatoid arthritis.
      - ✔ Result: It gives symptoms with swelling, pain and warmth in the joints.
      - ✔ Treatment: It is a chronic disease. After the diagnosis is made, it is tried to be treated with medication.
    - - ✔ Cause: It occurs as a result of damage to the cartilage structure in the joints and the decrease in joint fluid.
      - ✔ Result: Movement problems.
      - ✔ Treatment: medicine, healthy and balanced diet, sports.
    - - ✔ Cause: When the muscles are suddenly loaded with heavy work, cramps occur in case of insufficient nutrition and oxygen in the muscle cells, mineral loss.
      - ✔ Result: Movement problems.
      - ✔ Treatment: Applying massage to relieve the cramp area. If it is a mineral deficiency that causes cramping, taking that mineral as food.
    - - ✔ Reason: Genetic causes, loss of bone cells as a result of aging, vitamin D deficiency, mineral deficiency and decreased bone intermediate are among the causes of osteoporosis. It can also start with the decrease of estrogen hormone after the menopause period.
      - ✔ Result: Bones weaken and break easily.
      - ✔ Treatment: Benefiting from sunlight, regular physical activities and adequate protein and calcium, mineral and vitamin intake can slow down this disease.
    - - ✔ Reason: It is the separation of the bones from the joints. It can occur as a result of a movement that forces the joint ligaments and joint capsule in the movable joints.
      - ✔ Result: Pain, swelling and bruising are observed.
      - ✔ Treatment: There are different treatments depending on the dislocations, up to surgery.
    - - ✔ Cause: It is the partial tearing of the ligaments around the joints as a result of a sudden movement.
      - ✔ Result: Pain, swelling and bruising are observed.
      - ✔ Treatment: There are different treatments according to sprains. Medication, immobility, ice therapy, surgery.
    - - ✔ Reason: There are two menisci, which are made of cartilage in the knee joints, which provide load and joint balance. This is the rupture of structures.
      - ✔ Result: Pain, swelling, movement problem.
      - ✔ Treatment: Surgery.
- - - - Producing the egg cell
      - Carrying the fetus until birth
      - It is the system that has duties to secrete hormones.
    - - In a healthy woman, there are two, one on the right and left of the uterus
      - There are many follicles in each of them that will take part in the production of the egg cell.
      - Follicles begin to form in the fetal state, and the oogonium in the follicle differentiates and becomes a primary oocyte. Primary oocytes remain unchanged until puberty.
      - With puberty, follicles begin to develop and secrete estrogen and progesterone hormones under the control of pituitary hormones.
      - More than one follicle begins to develop in one of the ovaries every month. Only one completes its development and produces the egg cell. (Generally)
    - - It is a ciliated canal that connects the ovaries to the uterus.
      - The area where it connects with the ovary is called the ciliary funnel.
      - The ciliary funnel allows the egg cell to be thrown into the oviduct.
      - The egg is fertilized here. This is where the fertilized egg (zygote) undergoes its first mitotic divisions.
    - - It is where the embryo completes its development and growth until birth.
      - Its inner layer is called endometrium. This layer is where the embryo attaches to the uterus and is fed for a certain period of time.
    - - It is the place where the unfertilized egg is thrown out.
      - It is the place where the fetus comes out with normal delivery.
      - It has no connection with the urethra
    - - Oogonia (egg mother cell) produces egg cells by meiosis.
      - 1) In women, oogenesis begins during the fetus and ends with menopause. In the fetal state, oogonia form primary oocyte by mitotic divisions. These cells are kept unchanged until puberty. With puberty, one of them forms an egg cell every month.
      - 2) With puberty, with the effect of hormones, the primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I and becomes a secondary oocyte and polar cell. Polar cells have little cytoplasm, so they disappear after a while. The secondary oocyte begins meiosis II. When it reaches metaphase II, it stops at this stage. It emerges from the follicle and is excreted into the oviduct. (Ovulation)
      - 3) If it encounters sperm in the oviduct, it will be fertilized and continue meiosis II from where it left off. The egg cell is formed. The nucleus of the sperm cell fuses with the resulting egg cell. Fertilized egg cell with abundant cytoplasm and secondary polar cell with little cytoplasm are formed. The polar cell disappears over time.
    - - It is a cell with n chromosomes, which does not have centrosome organelles and has more cytoplasm than normal cells.
      - It is surrounded by the zona pellucida layer. This layer prevents more than one sperm from fertilizing and different types of sperm from fertilizing.
      - Follicle cells around the zona pellucida nourish the egg cell and produce the zona pellucida.
    - - GnRH: It is secreted from the hypothalamus and acts on the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It stimulates the secretion of FSH and LH from the pituitary gland.
      - Pituitary Hormones
        
        ✔ FSH: It is secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary. By stimulating the ovaries, it ensures the development of follicles and the secretion of estrogen hormone from the follicle.
        
        ✔ LH: It is secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary. It provides ovulation. It allows the ruptured follicle to become the corpus luteum by filling with fat. It also secretes small amounts of estrogen and large amounts of progesterone from the corpus luteum.
        
        ✔ LTH: It is secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary. It provides the development of mammary glands and the formation of maternal instinct.
        
        ✔ Oxytocin: It is secreted from the posterior lobe of the pituitary. It initiates the birth by contracting the uterine muscles and ensures the secretion of milk from the mammary glands.
      - Estrogen:It is secreted from the follicle to prepare the inner lining of the uterus for pregnancy. It allows the formation of secondary sex characters.
      - Progesterone: It is secreted from the corpus luteum. It provides the preparation of the inner wall of the uterus for pregnancy. It is secreted during pregnancy and prevents the termination of pregnancy.
    - - 1) Follicle Stage (0 – 14 days)
        
        ✔ FSH is secreted from the pituitary gland with the effect of GnRH secreted from the hypothalamus.
        
        ✔ With the effect of FSH, follicles develop and oogenesis begins.
        
        ✔ FSH secretion causes estrogen secretion from the follicle.
        
        ✔ A certain amount of increase in estrogen causes a decrease in FSH secreted from the pituitary. (negative feed back)
      - 4) Menstruation Phase (28 – 35 days)
        
        ✔ It is the stage in which the unfertilized egg is thrown out with the blood together with the endometrial tissues as a result of the deterioration of the corpus luteum.
        
        ✔ This phase lasts an average of 4 – 5 days. On the first day of this phase, the follicle phase also began to be seen.
      - 2) Ovulation Phase (day 14)
        ✔ Estrogen gives negative feedback to FSH and causes LH secretion from the pituitary with the effect of GnRH.
        ✔ Ovulation is performed with the effect of LH. The follicle ruptures and the egg cell remaining in metaphase II is thrown into the oviduct.
      - 3) Corpus Luteum Stage (14 – 28 days)
        
        ✔ The inside of the ruptured follicle with the effect of LH is filled with oil. This structure is called the corpus luteum (yellow body).
        
        ✔ A large amount of progesterone and a small amount of estrogen are secreted from the corpus luteum.
        
        ✔ In this phase, LTH is secreted from the pituitary gland. This hormone, together with LH, prevents the deterioration of the corpus luteum.
        
        ✔ If fertilization has occurred, the corpus luteum does not deteriorate until birth. Thus, no new egg cells are produced during this time.
        
        ✔ If there is no fertilization, LH, estrogen and progesterone levels decrease. The corpus luteum is disrupted.
  - - - ✔ Production of sperm cell
      - ✔ It is responsible for the transfer of sperm to the female body.
    - - ✔ There are two on the right and left of the penis.
      - ✔ It contains seminiferous tubules. The spermatogonia in these structures enable the production of sperm cells.
      - ✔ Leydig cells in it secrete the hormone testosterone.
      - ✔ The Sertoli cells in it provide nutrition to the sperm and also produce the hormone inhibin.
    - - ✔ Consists of a pair of cowper glands, a pair of seminal sacs and a prostate gland.
      - ✔ These three glands produce seminal fluid.
      - ✔ The biggest auxiliary gland is the prostate gland. It prevents the mixing of urine and sperm.
    - - ✔ It provides nutrition and movement of sperm.
      - ✔ It ensures the survival of sperm in the female reproductive system for a while.
    - - ✔ It is the place where sperm and urine are thrown out.
      - ✔ The canal inside is called the urethra. The urethra is the end of both the excretory system and the male reproductive system.
    - - ✔ Spermatogonia produce sperm by meiosis.
      - ✔ It starts with adolescence and continues until anthroposis.
      - ✔ Thousands of sperm can be created each month.
      - 1) Primary spermatocytes are formed by mitosis and differentiation of spermatogonia within the seminiferous tubules.
      - 2) Primary spermatocytes begin to divide by meiosis with puberty. As a result of meiosis I, two secondary spermtocytes are formed.
      - 3) Secondary spermatocytes form 4 spermatids in total by meiosis II. Spermatids are gametes that are incapable of fertilization and motility.
      - 4) Spermatids go into the epididymis and gain the ability to fertilize and move there. Thus, sperm cells are formed.
        
        Structure of Sperm Cell
        
        ✔ Occurs in the head, neck and tail.
        
        ✔ The head contains the nucleus with n chromosomes and the acrosome.
        
        ✔ The acrosome contains plenty of digestive enzymes. It causes the membrane of the egg cell to melt.
        
        ✔ There are plenty of mitochondria in the neck. These mitochondria produce the energy necessary for the movement of the flagella in the tail.
        
        ✔ Centrosome is located in the middle of the head and neck. Upon fertilization, this centrosome becomes the centrosome of the zygote.
    - - GnRH: It is secreted by the hypothalamus, causing the secretion of FSH and LH from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland.
      - Pituitary Hormones
        
        ✔ FSH: It is secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It initiates spermatogenesis by stimulating the seminiferous tubules.
        
        ✔ LH: It is secreted from the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland. It stimulates Leydig cells to secrete testosterone hormone.
      - testosterone
        It is secreted from Leydig cells in the testicles. It provides the maturation of sperm and the formation of secondary sex characters. It reduces FSH, LH and GnRH secretions with negative feedback.
      - Inhibin Hormone
        It is secreted by Sertoli cells in the testis and prevents the secretion of FSH hormone. (Negative feedback)
    - - The fusion of egg and sperm cell together is called fertilization.
      - 2 The cell with 2n chromosomes formed as a result of fertilization is called zygote.
      - 3 The egg cell produced in humans secretes fertilizin and attracts sperm.
      - 4 When one of the sperm passes through the zona pellucida and reaches the cell membrane, the zona pellucida hardens and prevents other sperm from entering.
      - 5 Only the nucleus and centrosome of the sperm enter the egg.
      - 6The centrosome of the zygote comes from the sperm and the mitochondria from the egg.
      - 7 If more than one egg cell is produced in the woman and these cells are fertilized separately, then multiple pregnancies occur. However, the genetic structure of the offspring is different from each other. Example: Fraternal twins
- - - - Allows air to be taken. (It can also be thrown away.)
      - The inner surface is covered with hairy and abundant vascular mucosal epithelium. The mucous epithelium secretes mucus, which keeps the inside of the nose moist. The bristles hold the germs and protect the lungs from infection. Capillaries, on the other hand, heat the air.
    - - The pharynx contains the epiglottis. This structure ensures that incoming nutrients and air are transmitted to the right place.
    - - It is a tube composed of “C” shaped cartilage rings. There is no cartilage ring on the surface adjacent to the esophagus. Cartilage rings keep the trachea open.
      - It has ciliated epithelial tissue on its inner surface. The goblet cells located here moisten the environment by secreting mucus, while the cilia keep foreign materials and protect the lungs from infection.
      - The trachea divides into two without entering the lungs. These branching branches are called bronchi.
      - After the bronchi enter the lungs, they divide into small tubes called bronchioles. The bronchioles extend to the alveoli and do not have cartilage rings in their structure.
    - - There are two lungs in the thoracic cavity, right and left. The right lung has three lobes and the left lung has two lobes. (The heart is located in the region where the missing lobe of the left lung is located.)
      - The lung is covered with a double layered membrane called the pleura.
      - Inside the lungs there are alveoli where gas exchange takes place. Alveoli are made up of many capillary blood vessels. (Having alveoli is unique to mammals.)
    - - The beginning of the trachea is called the larynx.
      - There are vocal cords in the larynx.
  - - - When the blood reaches the tissue capillaries, the oxygen is separated from the hemoglobin. From the red blood cell, it first passes into the plasma, then into the tissue fluid and then into the cells.
      - While oxygen is separated from hemoglobin in tissue capillaries, it combines with hemoglobin in alveolar capillaries.
      - Oxygen combines with hemoglobin in red blood cells to form oxyhemoglobin (HbO2).
      - 98% is transported by hemoglobin in red blood cells and 2% by blood plasma.
      - Bohr shift: CO2 concentration in tissue capillaries causes pH to drop. In this case, hemoglobin is separated from oxygen. This is called the bohr shift.
    - - The CO2 formed in the cells passes into the tissue fluid and then into the tissue capillaries.
      - CO2 that passes into the capillary can dissolve in the plasma or enter the red blood cell and combine with hemoglobin to form carbohemoglobin.
      - A large part of it can be transported in the red blood cells as bicarbonate ions.
      - In alveolar capillaries: Bicarbonate (HCO3) in the plasma enters the red blood cells and releases hemoglobin H. Carbonic acid (H2CO3) is formed again. With the effect of carbonic anhydrase enzyme, carbonic acid becomes H2O and CO2. CO2 leaves the red blood cells and first passes into the plasma and then into the alveoli.
      - CO2 and H2O pass to the lungs by diffusion and are exhaled with exhalation. H2O moistens the alveolar surface. The excess is thrown out
      - In tissue capillaries: CO2 entering the red blood cell combines with H2O with the effect of carbonic anhydrase enzyme to form carbonic acid (H2CO3). The carbonic acid then dissociates into its ions, becoming H and HCO3 (bicarbonate). While H is retained by hemoglobin, bicarbonate passes into the blood plasma and is transported in this way to the alveolar capillaries.
  - - - The amount of hemoglobin
      - Breathing rate
      - The heart rate increases.
      - Number of red blood cells
- - - - Ammonia is formed as a result of the breakdown of amino acids by respiration or their conversion to other monomers.
      - Since ammonia has a high toxic ratio, it is diluted with plenty of water and removed from the body.
      - The relationship of living things with water determines the solidity of excretory waste. As the dependence on water decreases, excretory substances begin to solidify.
      - Ammonia is converted to urea (also in small amounts to uric acid) and excreted in humans. Thus, less water is thrown away during discharge.
      - Ammonia is converted to urea by ornithine turnover in Kupfer cells in the liver.
      - It is removed from the body by the excretory system and the skin.
    - - Substances such as drugs, poisons and salt that have entered the body in many ways and used by the body are excretory wastes.
      - Also; Ions such as Na, K, Ca, Cl, HSO4, HCO3, H+, phosphoric acid, creatine and creatinine formed as a result of metabolism are also excretory substances.
    - - It is formed as a result of the breakdown of monomers by respiration.
      - Water --> It can be excreted through the skin, lungs, kidneys and anus.
      - CO2 --> It is excreted with the lungs.
  - - - It is a hollow, smooth muscle pouch.
      - There are valves that prevent the urine from returning in the areas where the urine comes into the bladder.
      - Nerve endings in the structure of the stretched walls send impulses to the brain and cause the sac to contract.
    - - It takes the urine from each kidney to the bladder.
    - - A healthy person has one pair of kidneys.
      - There is an adrenal gland above each kidney. There is an oily tissue between the kidney and the gland. There is no direct connection between the adrenal gland and the kidney.
      - Blood, lymph vessels, nerves and urinary channels enter the kidney from the pit area of the kidneys.
      - Functions of the Kidney
        
        Regulates the pH of the blood.
        
        It keeps the blood composition constant.
        
        It secretes hormones. (Erythropoietin: It stimulates the bone marrow to produce red blood cells.)
        
        It provides carbohydrate production from protein and fats in case of long-term hunger.
        
        Provides homeostasis.
        
        Removes excretory wastes.
      - External to Internal Structure of the Kidney
        
        Cortex (Shell): There are filtering units (nephron).
        
        Medulla (self): Extensions of nephrons extend.
        
        Pool (pelvis): It is a funnel-shaped structure in the middle of the kidney. Urine formed by filtration is collected here and transferred to the ureter.
      - NEPHRON:
        The units in the kidneys that filter urea and waste materials from the blood are called nephrons. There are about one million nephrons in each kidney.
        
        Structure of the Nephron
        
        1) Glomerulus: It is the ball of capillaries formed in the shell region of the renal artery.
        
        There are two layers of squamous epithelium in the structure of the capillary blood vessels in the structure of the glomerulus. This causes the blood pressure to remain constant and is always higher than the osmotic pressure of the blood. In this way, the substances in the glomerulus are transmitted unidirectionally to the nephron canals.
        
        2) Bowman's Capsule: It is the beginning of the excretory duct and surrounds the glomerulus.
        
        Consists of a single layer of squamous epithelium.
        
        It ensures that the filtrate from the glomerulus is transferred to the excretory canal.
        
        Glomerulus and Bowman's capsule together form the malpighi body.
        
        3) Excretory Canal: It is the part of the nephron that comes after Bowman's capsule.
        
        It consists of proximal tube, loop of henle, distal tube and urine collection duct.
        
        Proximal and distal tube in the shell region of the kidney; loop of henle and urinary collection duct are located in the core of the kidney.
        
        It is surrounded by a dense capillary network, which is the extension of the efferent vessels coming from the glomerulus. These vessels provide the final form of urine. The renal vein is formed by the fusion of these capillaries in the nephron.
        
        The distal tube is connected to the urine collection channel. Urine collection channels are enlarged and collected in the pool.
        
        The structure formed by the collection of urine collection channels is called pyramid channels. These are located in the core region.
      - Hormonal Control in the Working of the Kidney
        
        1) ADH: Increases water reabsorption.
        
        2) Aldosterone: Increases Na and Cl reabsorption, decreases K reabsorption. It mainly affects the distal tube.
        
        3) Parathormone: While it increases Ca reabsorption, it decreases P reabsorption.
        
        4) Calcitonin: It reduces Ca reabsorption.
    - - It is the place where the urine is thrown out.
      - It has a connection with the reproductive system in men.
  - - - It takes place between the capillaries of the glomerulus and the Bowman's capsule. The blood coming from the blood supply artery is filtered and passes into the Bowman's capsule. The remainder is removed by the efferent vein. This vessel then turns into a capillary and surrounds the nephron.
      - Due to the filtration pressure, blood cells, proteins and fats cannot pass into the Bowman capsule. The blood in the Bowman's capsule is similar to the plasma fluid. For this reason, it is also called protein-free plasma.
      - Glide Speed:
        Increasing the filtration pressure will increase the filtration speed
        
        Increased blood pressure
        
        Increased blood flow
        
        Increase in the amount of blood
        
        Shrinkage of capillaries
        
        Increases filtration speed.
    - - It is the return of some substances in the Bowman capsule to the capillaries by active or passive transport.
        
        If reabsorption could not be made, useful substances would also be excreted. As this would disrupt the chemical structure of the blood, death would occur.
      - Substances:
        
        Glucose and amino acid: All are reabsorbed in the proximal tube by active transport.
        
        Water: Most of it is reabsorbed by osmosis. Water reabsorption takes place mainly in the loop of henle. The descending limb of the loop of Henle absorbs water while the ascending limb is impermeable to water.
        
        Minerals: Most are reabsorbed by active or passive transport. There is only mineral reabsorption in the ascending limb of the loop of Henle.
        
        Urea: Half of it is reabsorbed by diffusion through the urine collecting duct.
        
        Creatine: Not reabsorbed.
    - - During secretion some substances such as hydrogen ions, creatinine, and drugs—will be removed from the blood through the peritubular capillary network into the collecting duct. The end product of all these processes is urine, which is essentially a collection of substances that has not been reabsorbed during glomerular filtration or tubular reabsorbtion.
      - Urine is mainly composed of water that has not been reabsorbed, which is the way in which the body lowers blood volume, by increasing the amount of water that becomes urine instead of becoming reabsorbed. The other main component of urine is urea, a highly soluble molecule composed of ammonia and carbon dioxide, and provides a way for nitrogen (found in ammonia) to be removed from the body. Urine also contains many salts and other waste components. Red blood cells and sugar are not normally found in urine but may indicate glomerulus injury and diabetes mellitus respectively.
  - - - ✔ Cause: Inflammation of the nephrons. Tonsil inflammations can occur as a result of not treating dental caries in a timely manner, microorganisms that cause infectious diseases such as angina and scarlet fever, and some poisons reaching the kidneys through the blood.
      - ✔ Result: Failure to treat on time causes kidney failure.
      - ✔ Treatment: Antibiotic.
    - - ✔ Cause: It occurs with the accumulation of minerals such as calcium oxalate and calcium phosphate in the kidney as a result of unnecessary drug use, hormonal disorders and genetic factors.
      - ✔ Result: It causes kidney damage, inflammation and bleeding.
      - ✔ Treatment: Small stones can pass spontaneously with plenty of fluid intake. For large ones, stone crushing methods are used. Operation