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Work Motivation: Concerns the conditions responsible for variations in…

- - - - Deficiency Needs:
        1, Physiological (food, water, etc.)
        
        Safety (protection from physical and emotional harm)
        
        Social (belonging)
        Growth Needs:
        
        Esteem (self-respect, respect from others)
        
        Self-actualisation (maximising self-development
        
        At work:
        
        Physiological: Work conditions
        
        Safety: Safe organisational work practices (how work is performed)
        
        Social: Relationship with others
        
        Self-esteem: Responsibility and recognition from work
        
        Self-actualisation: Opportunities of doing challenging tasks
        
        ERG Theory
        
        Existence needs
        
        Relatedness needs
        
        Growth needs
        
        Two-Factor Model
        
        There are two basic needs instead of five and they are independent of each other
        
        Motivators (Growth needs): Presence leads to job satisfaction
        Responsibility, growth, challenge, stimulation, independence/autonomy, variety, achievement, control, interesting work
        
        Hygiene factors (Deficiency needs): Absence leads to job dissatisfaction
        Pay, security, working conditions, company policy, work schedule, supervisors, co-worker relationships (relationships are highly debated, but if following Maslow's need hierarchies, it falls under hygiene factors)
        
        Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are two separate and independent dimensions
        
        The two factors did not come up as distinct and separate in empirical tests
        
        Criticisms:
        Depriving hygiene factors as motivating by nature
        Theory suits white-collar jobs more
    - - APA
        
        Need for achievement: Succeed and get the job done
        
        Need for power: Direct and control others
        
        Need for affiliation: Liked and accepted by others
    - - CAR
        
        Need for competence
        
        Need for autonomy
        
        Need for relatedness
  - - - Sustain desirable behaviours by:
        
        Positive reinforcers
        
        Negative reinforces (reducing negative stimuli)
        
        Reducing undesirable behaviours by:
        
        Punishment
        
        Negative punishment (withdrawal of reward)
      - Reinforcing schedules:
        
        Intermittent (reward given for only some correct responses) produce higher levels of performance than continuous (reward given every time there is a correct response
        
        Fixed interval: Monthly salary
        
        Variable-interval: Surprise bonuses unrelated to performance (rarely used)
        
        Fixed-ratio: Piecework (you get a fixed rate for every piece of work you do)
        
        Variable-ratio: You don't know when or how much you're receiving. This could be extremely motivating (e.g. gambling)
      - Combination of money, feedback, and social reinforcement most effective
  - - - N is negatively associated with performance motivation
      - C is positively associated
    - - Positive association between internal LOC and work motivation
  - - - Equity is when the worker's perception of their input/output ratio = the worker's perception of other people's input/output ratio (there is no tension)
        Input: What workers invest
        Output: What workers expect to receive
      - Underpayment inequity: Inputs are greater than output (anger, frustration)
        Overpayment inequity: Output is greater than input (guilt)
      - Inequity leads to a lack of motivation, which can be restored by:
        
        Altering perceptions of inputs or outcomes
        
        Altering comparison targets
        
        Changing or quitting the situation (usually don't/can't do this)
    - - Application
        V: Clearly define work outcomes
        I: Clearly point out relationship between performance and reward (what is desirable performance, rewards will follow if workers achieve)
        E: Provide assistance for employees to achieve their goal
      - Criticism:
        
        Wrongly assumes that individuals would calculate this
        
        Neglects non-cognitive factors, such as personality and emotions
    - - Difficult goals lead to higher level of performance
      - Directs attention and persistence to achieving goals
      - Highlights discrepancies between goal and present, creating feelings of unpleasantness (which generates an urge to reduce it)
      - Factors affecting goal effectiveness:
        
        Goal commitment
        
        If you are not committed enough, you'll give up too easily. But if you are too committed, you may pursue your goal until it's unhealthy for you
        
        Self-efficacy (perceived ability to perform a specific task)
        
        From mastery, observing similar others, receiving encouragement, physiological needs (reduce stress or fatigue)
        
        Feedback
        
        Correct information on the discrepancy between the goal and present state
        
        Implementation intention
        
        How to attain the goal (action plan)
        
        SMART
        Specific
        Measurable
        Achievable
        Relevant
        Time-bound
        
        Control theory: An individual compares the goal to actual outcome and adjusts behaviour to bring the outcome into agreement with the standard (from feedback loop)
        
        Issues:
        
        Set both quality and quantity goals
        
        Process goals (goals related to how work is done) are more appropriate for complex tasks, and outcome goals (goals related to actual level of production) for simple tasks
        
        Participative goal setting
        
        Individual needs to view a goal as possible
        
        When goals are medium difficulty, reward according to goal accomplishment. When goals are difficult, reward according to partial goal attainment and increase the reward as individual gets closer to the goal. Best result from incremental rewards linked to increments of achievement (e.g. piecework)
        
        Group goals for tasks requiring interdependence and cooperation
      - Management-by-Objective (MBO): Manages and employees go through the goal-setting and action-planning process together
      - Testing Goal-setting theory:
        
        Goals and goal commitment positively related to performance
        
        Goal was negatively related to helping behaviours among high goal commitment participants
        
        Difficult goal plus bonus pay produced the lowest level of helping
  - - - Experienced meaningfulness of work:
        
        Skill variety: Requires different abilities and skills
        
        Task identity: Sees the completion of an entire job
        
        Task significance: The job has impact on others
        Experienced responsibility for outcomes of work:
        
        Autonomy: Freedom and independence to carry out tasks
        Knowledge of actual results of work activities:
        
        Feedback: Receive clear information about one's effectiveness
      - Growth needs strength is a moderator (effect is stronger when growth needs strength is high)
- - - - Form a design team
        5-8 people for organisation units under 50 people
        Set up measurement and feedback system
        
        Develop objectives and identify indicators for performance
        
        Develop contingencies
        Associate changes of levels of indicators with effectiveness
        Indicators carry different weights in changing effectiveness
        
        Implement feedback system when the above is approved by the management
        Show performance level from all indicators regularly
- - - - 6 Dimensions:
        
        Desire to learn
        
        Mastery: Personal goal setting and continued task improvement
        
        Other referenced goals
        
        Competitiveness
        
        Worry: Concerns about performance evaluation
        
        Emotionality: Emotions of being evaluated