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Chap 11: Group Processes - Coggle Diagram

- - - - :chart_with_upwards_trend: ability to :bow_and_arrow:, :male-farmer:, find mates
        and care for children
      - group membership confers substantial survival and reproductive advantage
- - - - Result
        
        Individual roaches performed task
        faster when other roaches were present
        
        Opposite occurs when roaches
        performed difficult task
    - - Presence of others
        leads to :chart_with_upwards_trend: arousal
        
        Easier to perform
        dominant response
        
        Feel flustered and harder to
        perform non-dominant response
      - Origins
        
        :chart_with_upwards_trend: Alertness
        
        alert to possibility that individual does something requiring our response
        
        presence of others
        leads to :chart_with_upwards_trend: arousal
        
        human less predictable than lamp
        
        Feeling of
        Evaluation
        
        embarrassed if poor performance and pleased if good performance before others
        
        concern of being judged
        (evaluation apprehension)
        
        presence of others that are evaluating us leads to :chart_with_upwards_trend: arousal
        
        Distraction
        from task
        
        state of conflict from attention
        divided between others and task
        
        presence of others
        leads to:chart_with_upwards_trend: arousal
  - - - :chart_with_downwards_trend: evaluation apprehension
        means :chart_with_upwards_trend: relaxed
        
        :chart_with_downwards_trend: performance in
        simple tasks they don't care about
        
        :chart_with_upwards_trend: performance in
        complex tasks they care about
    - - when a group pulled on a rope each person pulled less than when they pulled alone
    - - :mens: have :chart_with_upwards_trend: tendency
        for social loafing than :womens:
        
        :womens: have :chart_with_upwards_trend: relational
        interdependence
        
        tendency to focus on and care
        about relationships with others
    - - Western cultures have :chart_with_upwards_trend: tendency
        for social loafing than Asian cultures
        
        Asians more likely to have
        interdependent view of the self
        
        defining the self in terms
        of relationships with others
        
        possible reduction in
        tendency to social loaf
      - Expecting to work with
        people of different cultures
        
        :chart_with_upwards_trend: tendency for social loafing
        
        Expect lower cooperation
        from dissimilar others
  - - - Lynching of
        blacks in USA
        
        Larger crowd of hooded Whites leads to
        increased savagery and viciousness of killings
      - Cultures that hide identity
        using face and body paint
        
        Significantly more likely to kill,
        torture and mutilate enemies
    - - :chart_with_downwards_trend: Accountability
        
        reduced likelihood of being
        singled out and blamed for actions
      - :chart_with_upwards_trend: Obedience to
        group norms
        
        Group norms may conflict with societal norms
        
        Deindividuation increases likelihood of
        following group norms over societal norms
        
        Group norms decide whether deindividuation leads to
        :check: or :red_cross: behaviours
- - - - Status-quo bias
        
        tendency to stick to existing
        practices that have worked before
        
        dislike stepping
        out of comfort zones
        
        Advertising
        
        monetary incentives needed to motivate
        behaviour changes like upgrading to a better plan
      - Reluctance to
        admit wrongs
      - Failure to share
        unique information
        
        distinction between shared information and unique information
        
        can make best decision if all unique information is shared with group members
        
        tendency to focus on
        shared information
        
        Procedure
        
        Groups of 4 tasked with choosing
        candidate for student body president
        
        Shared information: 4 :red_cross: qualities
        
        Unique information: 2 :check: qualities per person
        
        No unique information
        
        Results
        
        Few groups in unique condition chose candidate even though candidate had more good than bad qualities
        
        Solutions
        
        Length of discussions
        sufficiently long
        
        unique information usually brought up
        at later stages of group discussions
        
        Avoid sharing initial preferences
        early in group discussions
        
        Focus shifts away
        from unique information
        
        Assigning members responsibility
        for different kinds of information
        
        members recognise only
        they know specific information
        
        Transactive Memory
        
        "combined memory of the group
        more efficient than memory of its members"
        
        :bulb: Couples that specialise memory and are aware of what their partner knows do well in remembering
      - Domination of discussions
        by one member
      - Not trying to identify
        competent members
      - Competent members face difficulties disagreeing with group consensus
        
        RECALL: conformity
  - - - Highly cohesive
      - Isolated from
        contrary opinions
      - ruled by a directive leader
    - - Self-censorship
        
        fear dampening group morale
        
        fear being criticised
      - Illusion of
        invulnerability
      - Pressuring dissenters to
        conform to majority
    - - Failing to develop
        contingency plans
        
        Like a Plan B
        or Plan C
      - Lack of focus on risks
        of favoured decision
        
        too much focus on benefits
      - Inadequate consideration
        of full range of alternatives
    - - Remaining impartial
      - Subgroups
        
        dividing group into
        smaller subgroups
        
        first meet in subgroups then meet together to discuss different recommendations
      - Seek anonymous opinions
        from group members
        
        Secret ballot
        
        ask members to write
        down opinions anonymously
      - Seek external opinions
        
        people who are not members are less concerned with maintaining group cohesiveness
      - Devil's Advocate
  - - - Persuasive
        Arguments
        
        exposed to persuasive arguments
        group did not consider previously
        
        strengthen initial view
        
        group members provide own arguments in support of initial views during pooling of arguments
      - Social Comparison
        
        group members explore and sensitive
        to other members feelings and values
        
        due to need for
        approval and fitting in
        
        adopt similar position to others
        but slightly more extreme
        
        appear to support group values
        while presenting themselves positively
        
        snowballs into a chain reaction
  - - - Personality Traits
        
        Great Person Theory
        
        "certain key personality traits make a
        good leader regardless of situation"
        
        Dean
        
        low correlation between personality
        traits and leadership effectiveness
        
        gathered 100 personal attributes
        of all USA presidents
        
        Who most likely to have
        leadership effectiveness
        
        Tall
        
        Came from
        a small family
        
        Published books
        before taking office
      - Leadership Styles
        
        Transactional
        
        set clear, short-term goals
        
        reward individuals that meet goals
        
        Transformational
        
        inspire followers to focus on
        common, long-term goals
        
        effective leader adopts
        a mix of both styles
      - Contingency Theory
        of Leadership
        
        leadership effectiveness
        determined by
        
        Leader's control and influence
        
        Leadership type
        
        Relationship-Oriented
        
        concerned with relationships
        and worker's feelings
        
        most effective when in
        moderate-control work situation
        
        Workflow fairly operational but
        important tasks need to be done
        
        Ability to promote strong relations
        among employees crucial
        
        Task-Oriented
        
        more concerned with completing task
        than worker's feelings
        
        most effective in high-control and
        low-control work situations
    - - Difficulties
        faced by :womens:
        
        Stereotypes
        
        Agentic
        
        assertive, controlling,
        independent, dominant
        
        associated with men
        
        women exhibiting agentic traits
        criticised as not behaving like women
        
        Communal
        
        concerned with other's welfare,
        helpful, warm, affectionate
        
        perceived as having
        low leadership potential
        
        Glass Cliff
        
        perceived to be communal and hence
        better at managing crises
        
        placed in high-risk positions where
        chances of success are low
- - - - individuals must trust each other to find a solution desirable to both parties
      - lack of trust leads to escalating series of
        moves to outdo the other party and no one wins
      - Increasing
        Cooperation
        
        Friends
        
        playing with friends or people who they expect to interact with in the future
        
        more likely to adopt cooperative strategies
        
        Adjusting
        Behavioural Norms
        
        subtly changing expectations
        of behavioural norms
        
        Changing game name from
        "Wall Street Game" to "Community Game"
        
        Showing people Chinese cultural symbols :dragon: vs American cultural symbols :flag-us:
        
        Exposure to Chinese symbols increased cooperation while exposure to American symbols increased competitiveness
        
        Tit-for-Tat
        Strategy
        
        encouraging cooperation by
        first acting cooperatively :handshake:
        
        imitating opponent's
        response in previous trial
        
        communicating willingness to cooperate and intolerance for competitive behaviour
        
        successful in eliciting a trusting response
        
        Individuals
        
        individuals more likely to
        resolve conflict than groups
        
        Group problems
        
        deindividuation
        
        Group polarisation
  - - - Hypothetical companies
        paid for speed of delivery
        
        Fastest route through
        single lane one-way road
        
        Conditions
        
        Free for all
        
        Earned most money
        
        Acme and Bolt have
        gates over road
        
        Companies lost the most money
        
        Acme has gate
        over road
        
        Bolt retaliated by
        blocking road with truck
        
        Both companies lost even more
        money than in free-for-all outcome
      - Effects of
        Communication
        
        required participants to communicate
        via intercom on every trial
        
        Did not significantly improve profits
        
        Participants used intercom as
        means of threatening each other
        
        Communication did not improve trust
        
        instructed participants to work out
        solution fair to both parties
        
        Increased profits earned by both sides
        
        Fostered trust instead of
        encouraging competitive behaviour
  - - - form of compromise where parties make trade-offs based on their priorities
      - conceding on issues unimportant to
        self but important to the other party
      - Challenges
        
        :chart_with_upwards_trend: stakes
        :arrow_down:
        :chart_with_upwards_trend: biased perceptions of the other party
        :arrow_down:
        :chart_with_downwards_trend: trust in other part's proposals and overlook shared interests
        
        Solutions
        
        Neutral
        Mediators
        
        better able to recognise
        mutually beneficial solutions
    - - influences level of trust
        developed during negotiations
      - face-to-face negotiations
        facilitate trust building
      - electronic communications present difficulties in getting to know people and trusting them
- - - - Likelihood of members
        staying in group
      - Contributing to
        group activities
      - intensity of emotional reactions and attribution biases in response to group successes and failures
        
        Success :arrow_right: internal attributions
        
        Failure :arrow_right: external attributions
    - - Beneficial if task requires
        close cooperation
        
        curbs selfishness
        
        fuels motivation to
        achieve collective goals
        
        styles begin to synchronise
        physically and mentally
        
        overall boost to
        performance
        
        Distribution of hardships
        amongst members