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Unit 6 Test, 하자! - Coggle Diagram
Unit 6 Test, 하자!
Carbohydrates
Monosaccharides to di, and polysaccharides:
Understanding what they are + How they're made (condensation)
Digestion of biomolecules is a series of hydrolyses
Three examples of disaccharides and their monomers: maltose, sucrose, lactose
Compare the structures of cellulose, starch (amylopectin), and glycogen in terms of branches, types of glucose, animal or plant cells
Explain why cellulose is in plant cell, and glycogen used in animal cells
Identify carbs from a given biomolecule (1C:2H:1O)
Store short-term energy
Lipids
Draw the diagram of saturated fatty acid
Identify and describe different types.. of unsaturated fatty acids (monounsaturated, polyunsaturated, cis-unsaturated, trans-unsaturated)
Health effects of lipids: they are essential nutrients, but saturated fats or trans fats increase the blood cholesterol level, leading to higher risk of CHD (+atherosclerosis)
Identify lipids from a given information about biomolecules (CHO with little O)
Store long-term energy because: 1) insoluble, 2) store more energy per gram
Meiosis
Stages of meiosis, outline and draw diagrams for!
Diploid cell with duplicated chromosomes --> Two haploid cells with duplicated chromosomes --> Four haploid cells without any sister chromatids
Remember that DNA replication already occurred during the S phase of interphase.
Two PMATs:
Prophase I (crossing over, then condensation),
Metaphase I (homologous pairs still held together at chiasmata, line up at the equator, where
random orientation occurs
),
Anaphase I (homologous chromosomes are pulled to the opposite poles),
Telophase I (maybe decondensation)+ cytokinesis
NO
DNA replication between Meiosis I and II
Prophase II (condensation)
Metaphase II (chromosomes line up at the equator)
Anaphase II (sister chromatids are pulled to the opposite poles)
Telophase II + cytokiness
==> Four haploid gametes
Genetic variation in gametes results from crossing over and random orientation // Further genetic variation in offspring is done by random fusion of gametes from parents (--> evolution)
Four gametes with unique combination of alleles are the result of meiosis.
Meiosis only occurs to produce sex cells, thus in sex organs (i.e. testis, ovule)
Outline crossing over:
At the beginning of meiosis (when chromosomes are NOT condensed yet), homologous chromosomes come closer via
synapsis
. This structure is called tetrad or bivalent, whatever you feel like.
A break forms at a chromatid, and a homologous part of a non-sister chromatid invades in to join at the break.
-- This happens at random positions, but between the non-sister chromatids, the precious same genes (maybe different alleles) are exchanged.
--
chiasmata
is the X-shaped connection point
chiasmata slides to the end of chromatids during anaphase.
Draw the formation of chiasmata!
Crossing over allows
reshuffling of the linked genes
:
we'll learn more about 'linked' genes: they're basically very close to one another and on the same chromosome.
Outline random orientation: In each bivalent, there are one maternal copy and one paternal copy.
Orientation
: which pole each chromosome is facing
The orientation of maternal and paternal chromosomes in a bivalent is random. (Equal 50% chance)
The orientation of chromosomes in one bivalent is independent of the orientation oof another bivalent.
Random orientation explains the independent assortment: Genes/traits of a parent are not always inherited together by an offspring (Later connection to Mendel's law of inheritance)
==> Random orientation leads to 2^n possible combinations of alleles (not considering crossing-over). (n=haploid number)
Karyotyping involves removing fetus cells undergoing mitosis (no cytokinesis) from mother, and then staining and analyzing the condensed chromosomes.
Fetal cells maybe obtained by 1) amniocentesis (injecting needle into mother's amniotic fluid to remove amniotic cells), 2) Chorionic villus sampling (injecting a tube into mother's vagina and removing a chorionic villus (placental cells))
trisomy 21 = Down syndrome
Cell transport
Passive transport
Simple diffusion (from high to low solute concentration) for small non-polar particles across a semi-permeable membrane
Facilitated diffusion (from high to low solute concentration) for large and/or polar particles at a maybe faster rate across a semi-permeable membrane, through protein channel
Osmosis is the movement of water particles from low to high solute concentrations through a semi-permeable membrane (through aquaporin)
Extra points
Osmosis can be thought of using the number of "free" water particles
Tissues must be kept in isotonic solutions to prevent osmosis
Active transport
Against the concentration gradient, through protein pump using cellular energy (ATP --> ADP + Pi)
also, BULK TRANSPORT might occur (=vesicular transport)
Outline the process of endocytosis (or exocytosis): 1.A fold forms at part of a membrane and the substance is brought closer to the membrane, 2. The fold gets deeper, until one part of the membrane joins another part. 3. The vesicle that contains the substance pinches off. 4. This vesicle is now inside the cell.
Physiology
Digestion
is the breakdown of large food pieces into smaller, easily-absorbable monomers +
Absorption
is the transport of digested foods across epithelial cells.
Draw an annotated diagram of
digestive system
Identify alimentary canal and accessory organs
Link: Enzymes have optimum temperatures and pHs, and so do the digestive enzymes in this digestive system.
Label them!
Mechanical digestion: Chewing and churning (quick)
Peristalsis: a wave of muscle contraction: The wall of gut has circular and longitudinal muscles. During peristalsis, circular muscles contract to prevent food backflow, and longitudinal muscles contract to make food move.
Food only moves from mouth to anus by peristalsis
Thus vomiting is not done by peristalsis
In esophagus,
one
wave of peristalsis to move food down quickly
In intestines,
food moves very slowly
to allow digestion (and absorption) to happen.
Also,
peristalsis mixes food with enzymes
(part of mechanical digestioono)
Chemical digestion: Breaking down polymers into monomers. (Naming enzymes, substrates, products, optimum pH, location)
Pancreas: 1) bicarbonate to neutralize HCl, and 2) Gland tissue for secreting digestive enzymes
Large molecules into smaller molecules.
Gland tissue made up of gland cells clustered around ducts, which again group into a pancreatic duct.
The pancreatic duct will release pancreatic juice at the right timing (in response to eating, etc)
Small intestine: 1) Digestion: Small molecules into monomers to be absorbed
Enzymes to know: Amylase, maltase, sucrase, lactase, protease (endopeptidase - pepsin, trypsin), dipeptidase, maybe exopeptidase, and lipase (maybe nuclease)
Absorption: Transport of digested foods across epithelial cells, into capillaries or lacteal
Small intestine: 2) Two examples of absorption: triglyceride and glucose.
Triglyceride involving diffusion, lipoprotein complex, and exocytosis.
Glucose involving Na+/K+ pump, Na+/glucose co-transport, and then facilitated diffusion
Blood system