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NEW DEALS AND NEW DIRECTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1933-45 - Coggle…
NEW DEALS AND NEW DIRECTIONS IN INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1933-45
ROOSEVELTS NEW DEALS
roosevelt and the presidential election of 1932
won partly due to his promises of a new deal and the failures of the Hoover administration.
Hoover was too busy fighting the depression to campaign effectively.
Hoover had poor relations with the press and Roosevelt exuded charisma - he used the radio to a great extent.
Hoover expected to lose whilst FDR was determined to win.
americans were overall voting for change.
THE FIRST NEW DEAL 1933-35
the hundred days:
following his inauguration, FDR called Congress into a special session that lasted 100 days and saw the development of the first new deal.
resulted in a considerable amount of emergency legislation and the setting up of 'alphabet agencies'.
there were multiple successes and failures throughout these reforms but at the end of the hundred days the us had been transformed.
FDR's priority was economic improvement.
agriculture:
given a higher priority than industrial recovery as 30% of labour force worked in agriculture.
Agricultural Adjustment Act 1933:
govt would subsidise farmers to reduce their acreage and production voluntarily.
by producing less, cost of food would increase, as would farmers wages.
Agricultural Adjustment Administration was set up and paid farmers to reduce their production of staple items.
the programme was to be self-financing through a tax placed on the companies that processed food.
there was public outcry as food and cotton was destroyed - 6 mill piglets were bought and slaughtered.
the drought worked in the AAA's favour.
it worked effectively to deal with overproduction although there were problems.
Tennessee Valley Authority 1933:
set up to deal with underdevelopment and poverty in the TV.
created to harness power of the River Tennessee and make the area more proseproud.
had several major tasks:
to construct 20 huge dams to control the floods that periodically effected the region.
to develop ecological schemes such as tree planting to stop erosion.
to encourage farmers to use more effective methods of cultivation - like contour ploughing.
to provide jobs by setting up fertiliser manufacture factories.
to develop welfare and educational programmes.
to produce hydro-electric power for an area where existing electricity supplies were limited to 2 out of 100 farms.
banking and finance:
pressing concern of collapse of american banking system.
by 1932, banks were closing at rate of 40% per day.
Emergency Banking Relief Act 1933:
all banks in country were closed for 4 days to give treasury officials time to draft emergency legislation.
ensuing act was passed after only 40 minutes of debate.
gave treasury the power to investigate all banks threatened with collapse.
the Reconstruction Finance Corporation was authorised to buy their stock to support and take on many of their debts.
FDR used method of radio broadcast fireside chats to encourage people to put their money back into the banks - it worked.
solvent banks could reopen and others were reorganised to put them on a sounder footing.
by the beginning of april, $1bn had been returned to bank deposits and the crisis was over.
Glass-Steagall Act 1933:
commercial banks that relied on small scale depositors were banned from involvement in the investment banking that had fuelled the 1920s speculation.
bank officials were not allowed to take personal loans from their own banks.
authority over open market operation was centralised and transferred to the Fed Reserve Board in Washington.
new agency of Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation.
Regulation of the Stock Exchange:
the Truth-in-Securities Act 1933 required brokers to offer clients realistic information on what they were selling.
the Securities Act 1934 set up the Securities Exchange Commission agency to oversee stock market activities and prevent fraudulent activities.
industrial recovery:
limited success due to scale of industrial collapse.
primary aims was to return people to work and increase consumer demand.
National Recovery Administration:
set up to oversee industrial recovery.
suspension of anti-trust legislation for 2 years to promote industrial expansion.
firms were encouraged to agree to codes of practice to regulate unfair competition, working conditions and minimum wages in their industry.
codes did not help economic recovery.
they did little other than allow large firms to indulge in unfair practices.
Public Works Administration:
funded with $3.3bn.
was hoped that expenditure on public works such as roads, dams, hospitals and schools would stimulate the economy - e.g. road building would lead to increased demand for concrete.
it put hundreds of thousands of people to work building nearly 13,000 schools and 50,000 miles of roads.
relief:
unemployment and social problems persisted despite the jobs created by PWA.
FDR was more willing than Hoover to help people.
Federal Emergency Relief Act 1933:
est. FERAgency.
given $500mill divided equally between states to help provide for unemployed.
act said each state should set up a FERA office and organise relief programmes.
money should be raised via borrowing, tax raises or other means.
federal monies were denied when some states refused to comply.
FERA's effectiveness was limited due to opposition and favouring of laissez-faire still.
it set precedent of fed govt giving direct funds for relief though.
Civil Conservation Corps 1933:
special programme to provide young people experience of work, useful training in community service, co-operation and other beneficial skills as well as employment.
unemployed young men were recruited by the Dept. of Labour to work in the CCC in national forests, parks and public lands.
organised along military lines.
planted 1.3bn trees.
THE SECOND NEW DEAL
reasons:
climate in new congress for action.
FDR was increasingly frustrated with SC for overturning legislation and he saw this as opposing him so made himself more radical in outlook.
FDR was also frustrated with the wealthy and the forces of big business who were opposing him more and more.
works progress administration:
recruited people for public works projects.
by 1941, 20% of nation had found employment with it.
wagner act 1935:
FDR was reluctant to become involved in labour relations regulation due to a general mistrust in unions and him not wishing to upset big business further.
the act guaranteed workers the right to collective bargaining through unions of their own choice.
a National Labour Relations board was set up to ensure fair play incl employers not being allowed to discriminate against unionists.
act effectively gave unions rights in law.
social security act 1935:
first federal measure of direct help as a workers right.
would be built upon in future.
a minimum and maximum monthly payment was set for pensions according to the contributions the recipients had paid into the scheme.
there was a maximum length and payment for the unemployment benefit also.
despite its flaws, this was a massive break in govt tradition.
FDR refused to allow general taxation to subsidise the system and ensured it had to be self-financing.
the banking act 1935:
intended to give fed govt control of banking in us.
control of banking was removed from private banks to central govt and centre of financial management moved from NY to Washington.
THE IMPACT OF THE NEW DEAL
OPPOSITION TO THE FIRST NEW DEAL
the right:
many of the wealthy who had seen FDR as the saviour of capitalism during the Depression now turned against him as capitalism had been saved.
they argued the increase in taxes fell too heavily on them.
tended to oppose the level of govt intervention in the economy.
the Republican Party was rebuilding but was unable to find a strong candidate to oppose FDR.
FDR did face opposition from the Liberty League (Democrats and Republicans who promoted private property and private enterprise unregulated by the law.)
the left:
this is where FDR was more concerned about threats from.
END POVERTY IN CALIFORNIA:
ideas of novelist Upton Sinclair.
unemployed would work in state co-operatives paid in a currency only to be used in other co-operatives.
'SHARE OUR WEALTH:
1934 - Huey Long.
advocated all private fortunes over $3mill should be confiscated.
also old-age pensions, minimum wages and free college education for suitable candidates.
proved popular with 4.6 mill members across states.
OLD AGE REVOLVING PENSIONS INCORPORATED:
those over 60 who weren't in employment should be given $200 a moth understanding every cent should be paid and none saved to boost consumption.
encouraging people to retire at 60 would leave more jobs for the youth.
it received great support with lobbying of congress occurring but was never realistic.
FATHER CHARLES COUGHLIN:
a priest with an enormously influential radio programme.
regularly commanded audience of 30-40mill.
founded National Union for Social Justice with the aim of monetary reform and redistribution of wealth.
briefly threatened FDR with a possible alliance with Long, but Long was assassinated and Coughlin became more anti-semitic losing him significant support.
opposition of the supreme court:
FDR's many flexible ideas of the workings of the constitution were bound to come into conflict with its guarantors - the SC.
the court had supported the New Deal in times of crisis but as FDR's first term of office came to an end, it increasingly declared legislation unconstitutional.
between 1935-36 it found 11 fed laws to be unconstitutional.
in may 1935 - 'black monday' - it found the Farm Mortgage Act and the NRA to be unconstitutional and argued the removal of a trade commissioner - as FDR sought - was the responsibility of Congress not the President.
the ruling on the NRA seemed to imply that the govt had no powers to oversee nationwide economic affairs, except in so far as they affected inter-state commerce.
JUDICIARY REFORM BILL:
FDR believed the justices on the court were out of touch.
increasingly saw the SC as unelected officials stifling the work of a democratically elected govt - members of the SC saw it as them using their legal authority to halt the spread of dictatorship.
bill proposed that president could appoint new justice when existing one didnt retire within 6 months of turning 70 and also increased to possible total of judges to 15.
FDR underestimated the popular support and respect of the court and also scared congress into wondering if he would start retiring them also.
the bill was rejected by congress.
OPPOSITION TO FDR:
from big business and wealthy people.
he called special congressional session in 1937 to pass various measures such as an anti-lynching bill but not one was passed.
THE ACHIEVEMENTS OF THE NEW DEAL
economic effects
recovery was sluggish in the new deal years due to multiple contradictory measures.
FDR believed in a balanced budget so was reluctant to spend excessively of federal projects.
he failed to see govt spending might be necessary to offset the reduction in spending in the private sector.
desire for a balanced budget led to a budget deficit.
national total of personal income had dropped just over $10 mill between 1929-39 despite a population increase of 9 mill.
govt seemed reconciled to a permanent unemployment figure of at least 5 mill.
in 1933 18 mill were unemployed and in 1939 it was still 9 mill.
the Roosevelt Recession of 1937 saw a return to higher unemployment.
many believe the real reason unemployment fell was the 1939 amendment to the 1935 Neutrality Act that mean belligerents could buy from the usa and production increased.
political effects:
viewed as a programme of reform that transformed the national infrastructure of the us.
economic reforms intended to rescue capitalist system and provide a more rational framework which it could operate in.
labour unions were allowed to take their place in labour relations and FDR reluctantly recognised that fed govt had a role in settling industrial disputes.
expansion of govt was permanent.
in later 1930s, SC became more sympathetic to new deal reforms as it recognised the political realities.
expansion in welfare provision.
social effects
RELIEF:
FERA and WPA set up that offered hope to millions.
national system of old-age pensions and unemployment benefit est. for first time.
whilst the amounts spent were inadequate for the needs of the time, the legislation set important precedents.
fed govt was now significantly larger and associated with relief programmes.
WOMEN AND THE NEW DEAL:
Eleanor Roosevelt was one of first politically active first ladies.
1933 Economy Act: forbade members of the same family working for the fed govt and 75% of people who lost their jobs due to this were women.
NRA codes still allowed for unequal wages.
some agencies, like CCC, banned women entirely.
AFRICAN AMERICANS AND THE NEW DEAL:
saw no civil rights legislation.
depression worked against african americans as they were often first to be fired and last to be hired.
NRA codes allowed them to be paid less.
CCC had strict segregation.
anti-lynching bills were introduce into congress in 1934+37 but both were defeated.
NATIVE AMERICANS:
1934 Indian Reorganisation Act recognised and encouraged native american culture.
tribes were reorganised into self governing bodies.
however, many argued this undermined efforts to modernise and join mainstream society.
these measures in no way relieved native american poverty.
officials tried to ensure native americans could take advantage of new deal agencies but poverty was so great these measures had limited effect.
INTERNATIONAL RELATIONS 1933-41
THE 'GOOD NEIGHBOUR' POLICY
introduction of the 'good neighbour policy:
FDR encouraged economic and diplomatic co-operation.
continuation of Hoover's policies of persuasion and economic pressure to exert influence on Latin America.
seen by FDR as transforming the Monroe Doctrine into arrangements for mutual hemispheric action against aggressors.
relations between the us and latin america:
1934: us troops left Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua in accordance with this policy.
1934: congress signed a treaty that nullified the platt amendment in Cuba.
by 1938, the policy had led to 10 treaties with latin american countries that resulted in huge trade increases for the us.
1934 Reciprocal Trade Agreement: repealed several of the 1920s isolationist trade policies - began historic move towards lower trade barriers and greater global engagement.
THE USA'S POLICY OF NEUTRALITY
neutrality acts:
1st - 1935: gave president power to prohibit US ships carrying US-made munitions to countries at war; prevented US citizens from travelling on these ships unless at own risk.
2nd - 1936: banned loans or credits to countries at war; set no limit on trade in materials useful for war and companies like Texaco, Standard Oil and Ford were able to sell on credit to General France in Spanish Civil War.
3rd - 1937: forbade export of munitions for use by either force in Spain; permitted nation involved in war to buy goods other than munitions from US on scheme of 'cash and carry'.
4th - 1937: gave president power to determine what could and couldn't be bought, other than munitions, and made travel on ships of countries at war unlawful.
5th - 1939: president could authorise 'cash and carry' export of arms and munitions to countries at war; north atlantic proclaimed a combat zone; us navy ordered to patrol western atlantic and reveal location of german submarines to british.
fdr and neutrality
he despised spread of totalitarianism in Germany and Italy and by 1937 saw that the US may need to once again become involved in European affairs.
this contrasted the view of most in America who wanted to stay completely out of European affairs.
poll in 1937 showed 70% of americans believed involvement in WWI had been a mistake and 95% opposed any future involvement in war.
in 1937 FDR made his 'quarantine speech' warning the people that the dangers of war were close and a quarantine of agressors was close.
1939 5th neutrality act.
THE US RESPONSE TO THE EUROPEAN WAR 1939-41
FDR began to express strong support for Western Democratic states.
after Munich agreement and Hitlers announcement of furhter rearmament, FDR granted a further $300 mill to the defence budget.
1938: secret talks opened with french on how to bypass neutrality laws.
changing situation in europe
1939, trade embargo terms of neutrality acts were repealed.
most americans sympathised with allies over disdain for nazi germany.
1939, congress agreed to sell arms on a strictly cash and carry basis.
1940, after defeat of france, britain stood alone and made substantial aircraft orders from the us but was increasingly unable to pay.
it became clear the us would have to help more if britain was to stay in the war.
50 destroyers were traded with 6 caribbean bases from the british - this marked a shift to active support for britain.
1940 PRESIDENTIAL ELECTION:
Republicans were seen as party of non-involvement.
FDR stood for third term as there seemed no suitable successor within the Democrat party - neutrality crossed party lines and he repeated to audiences about how he hated war.
his victory was smaller than in 1936, but was still a victory.
in a fireside chat at the end of 1940, he called the US 'the arsenal of democracy'.
lend-lease and the atlantic charter
introduced May 1941 - britain would be loaned the means to keep fighting to avoid war spreading to total us involvement.
ATLANTIC CHARTER:
est after meeting between FDR and Churchill.
expression of what world would be like after destruction of Nazi Germany - with international peace, national self-determination and freedom of seas.
FDR agreed to send aid to USSR, after Germany's invasion in 1941, and lend-lease was later extended to the USSR.
THE USA AND JAPAN
worsening relations
had deteriorated since 1937 start of Japanese invasion of China.
Japan declared open door policy obsolete.
FDR retaliated by lending funds to China to buy weapons.
Japan was dependent on supplies of industrial goods from the US - in 1940 congress limited supplies of oil and scrap iron to Japan.
the US demanded Japan withdraw from China but this was ignored as there was nothing offered in return.
1941, US froze Japanese assets in US and introduced an embargo on oil - Japan was wholly dependent on US oil.
European wars could not defend their possessions and Japan took advantage of this claiming the French Indochina colonies after Germany's invasion.
attack on pearl harbor
The US hadnt responded to Japanese offers that requested the US and Britain to cut off aid to China and lift economic blockade on Japan so the Japanese made preparations to attack Pearl Harbor.
objective was to immobilise US navy so it couldn't stop Japans expansion into East Asia.
attack on Dec 7th 1941.
8th Dec US declared war on Japan.
11th Dec Hitler and Italy declared war on US honouring treaty obligations with Japan.
THE USA AND THE SECOND WORLD WAR
THE IMPACT OF WWII ON THE USA
political effects:
govt took over more control of people's lives.
1940: Smith Act made it illegal to threaten to overthrow govt.
1940: Selective Service Act introduced conscription.
Office of War mobilisation created to control supply of goods and prices.
National War Labour Board set prices.
1942: War Management Commission recruited workers where they were needed most.
Office of Scientific Research and Development: mobilised scientists to help with new methods of death - incl atom bomb - and methods of saving lives.
1941: Office of Price Administration and Civilian Supply set up to control inflation:
1942: it set general max price regulation which froze prices to prevent inflation.
had power to control almost all prices and ration scarce items.
almost 90% of food items were subject to price controls.
economic effects:
played greater role in recovery than new deals.
farm income grew by 250%.
unemployment effectively ceased by 1942.
by end of war almost 60% of women were employed.
food prices and rent were stictly controlled and some items - e.g. meat, sugar and petrol - were rationed.
production of cars for ordinary motorists stopped entirely.
average wages increased 40% - with little to spend these on they were saved.
fed govt spent 2x as much in 1941-45 as it had in 150 years prior.
increased taxes to pay for war - highest earned paid 94% tax.
social effects
TREATMENT OF JAPANESE AMERICANS:
relocation centres - akin to concentration camps - were set up on the west coast as people believed there was no way of distinguishing between loyal and traitorous.
property was left unprotected and much looting went on in their absence.
by 1944, as fear of Japanese attack receded, the internees began to return home.
Dec 1944, SC forbade the internment of loyal Japanese-Americans but ill feeling remained as those outside of the west coast, italians and germans had not been interned this way.
WOMEN:
1944: 19 mill female workers - still considered inferior workers though.
1 in 3 aircraft workers were women.
1/2 of those working in electronics and munitions were women.
1942: a poll showed 60% of americans were in favour of women helping in war industries.
some states made equal pay between genders compulsory.
some states protected women from workplace discrimination.
at end of war, many gave up their jobs and returned to role of housewife.
women were generally excluded form top, well-paid jobs.
on average, women earned 50-60% of male wage.
a woman could still be dismissed from her job when she married,
AFRICAN AMERICANS:
increased optimism at start of war as US was fighting fascism and racism, so surely it couldn't continue to discriminate against its own population.
vast majority of those employed had menial jobs.
earned less than white counterparts.
unemployed african americans did not benefit from inital boom in work at outset of war as white americans were hired first.
1940 survey showed more than half of defence industries would not employ african americans - largely because of the workers discrimination.
'double v' campaign:
victory at home as well as abroad in terms of improved civil rights.
the march on washington movement:
led by philip randolph, one of most prominent leading african american activists and trade unionists.
called for immediate action on discrimination in war industries and military.
march was expected to have 100,000 demonstrators which would do little to sustain americas image of the upholder of liberty and democracy.
FDR was concerned the march would discredit and embarrass the govt and the us so came to a compromise.
by executive order, the Fair Employment Practices Commission was set up to prevent discrimination at work.
randolph continued to encourage protest rallies and civil disobedience to show opposition to laws that permitted unfair and unequal treatment.
the fair employment practices commission:
given more powers and a bigger budget in 1943.
after this, investigated about 8,000 instances of discrimination.
successful with 66% of cases in north-east.
african americans and the armed forces:
army became knwon as the 'jim crow army'.
on occasions, african american soldiers were given inferior training, few recreational facilities, and endured slurs and physical mistreatment.
tended to perform menial non combat tasks like cooking, guarding prisoners, delivering supplies and building camps and roads.
1940: FDR ordered air corps to recruit and all african american flying unit.
by 1945, more than 600 pilots had been trained.