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Memory, Sensory register (SR), Report everything - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Events that can be reported from an individual's life (declarative)
    - - Recall of facts that have meaning and concepts (declarative)
    - - Ability to perform a task (implicit)
    - - Brain scans also support this as they show that different areas of the brain are active when performing different tasks involving different types of LTM - supporting physically different stores of LTM.
  - - - Bahrick (1975) investigated the duration of LTM with a field study method. Graduates were asked to identify people from their high school yearbook.
        
        Participants were given a list of names and had to select the photograph that matched the name.
        
        Those recalling from 14 years accurately matched the name and photo 90% of the time. Those recalling from 47 years accurately matched these 60% of the time.
        
        This suggests that LTM lasts for a lifetime as such strong recall after 47 years is not likely to fade significantly after a few decades.
  - - - Baddeley (1966) tested encoding in both STM and LTM.
        
        Participants were given four lists of words to learn: acoustically similar, acoustically dissimilar, semantically similar, and semantically dissimilar. The participants then had to recall these lists in the order presented to them after 20 minutes (for the LTM testing).
        
        Semantically similar words had the worst recall, as getting them in the correct order was difficult as they all meant the same thing. There was no difference between the acoustically similar/dissimilar words.
        
        From this, he concluded that LTM relied on semantic encoding to process information.
- - - - Miller (1956) demonstrated this in an experiment where he asked participants to recall information, adding an extra word as he moved on.
        
        He started participants with two or three words, and built the sentence up in length until they made an error.
        
        Most participants struggled between 5-9 words, which is known as "Miller's Magic 7".
      - Jacobs (1887) completed a similar experiment using digits with 443 female students (called a digit span experiment).
        
        The average recall was 7.3 numbers, similar to Miller's.
        
        This supports Miller's study and suggests that it is valid.
    - - Peterson and Peterson (1959) gave participants three-letter trigrams to learn (e.g. CRG, JTY). These were presented visually to the participants one at a time.
        
        The participants would then have to recall the trigram after a delay of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 seconds (in which they were asked to complete a distraction task to prevent rehearsal, such as counting backwards from 300 in 3s).
        
        The results were plotted and shown to be a decay curve, demonstrating that over time memory seems to decay. This graph was then extrapolated to show that after 30 seconds, the recall would be zero - stating that STM has a duration of 18-30 seconds.
  - - - Baddeley (1966) used a similar method to his LTM encoding experiment in order to test STM encoding.
        
        The participants were asked to recall the word lists immediately in the order presented.
        
        There was no different in the semantically similar/dissimilar word lists, but the recall for acoustically similar words was the worst. From this, he concluded that STM is encoded acoustically.
- - - - Central executive
        
        Articulatory-phonological loop
        
        This consists of the articulatory process and phonological store, and temporarily stores the language-based information.
        
        Visuo-spatial sketchpad
        
        This consists of the visual cache and inner scribe (Logie (1995)) and temporarily stores visual and spatial information.
        
        Episodic buffer
        
        Facilitates communication between the central executive and LTM.
    - - Shallice and Warrington (1974) made a case study of KF (who suffered brain damage after a motorcycle accident). He was unable to recall visual information after its presentation, but his verbal information was unaffected. This supports the WMM's claim that separate short-term stores manage the phonological and visual memories.
        
        The model was developed based on evidence from laboratory experiments, so confounding variables could be carefully controlled in order to produce reliable results.
    - - Results from the laboratory experiments researching the WMM will often have low ecological validity due to artificial tasks and may not accurately represent memory in everyday activities.
  - - - It makes sense that memories in the LTM are encoded semantically - e.g. an individual might be able to recall the general message demonstrated in a political speech, rather than all of the individual words heard.
        
        The MSM was a pioneering model of memory that inspired further research and other influential models, such as the WMM.
    - - The model is over-simplified, as evidence suggests that there are multiple short and long-term memory stores (such as episodic, procedural, and semantic LTM).
- - - - Retroactive interference is where a new memory affects the old memory - such as forgetting an old password as the new password replaces it.
      - Proactive interference is where an old memory affects the new memory - such as struggling to learn Spanish vocabulary as it gets confused with previously learned French vocabulary.
      - Research support includes Baddeley and Hitch (1977), who found that rugby players who had played in every game were more likely to forget matches - the later games interfered with a recall of the earlier matches (i.e. retroactive interference).
  - - - Context-dependent retrieval failure occurs when the memory cannot be accessed due to a lack of external cues
        
        Baddeley and Godden (1975) found that deep sea divers who learned material on a) land or b) underwater were more accurate recalling in the same condition that they learned the material.
      - State-dependent retrieval failure occurs when the individual has a different internal (i.e. emotional) state when recalling than when they learned the information.
        
        Goodwin et al (1975) found that participants who learned information when drunk had better recall the next day when drunk compared to sober.
- - - - Leading questions
        
        Leading questions are those which increase the likelihood of a participant's schema affecting their answer, such as "Did you see any glass at the site of the collision?"
        
        Loftus and Palmer (1974) showed participants a video of a traffic collision, and then gave them a questionnaire to test their immediate recall of the videos' events.
        
        Participants were asked to estimate how fast the cars were going when they hit/contacted/collided/bumped/smashed into each other.
        
        The participants' estimates were fastest on average for the participants given the 'smashed' condition and slowest for 'contacted', suggesting that an immediate recall can be skewed by leading questions.
      - Post-event discussion
        
        A misleading conversation after an incident has occurred that may alter a witness' memory; information added to a memory after the incident has occurred.
        
        Loftus and Palmer conducted a 'Bugs Bunny Experiment'. Participants watched an advert for Disney that included Bugs Bunny (who is not a Disney character). They were then asked about their childhood experiences at Disneyworld, and what characters they recalled meeting - including Bugs Bunny.
        
        Many participants reported meeting Bugs Bunny, including giving details of this experience - despite the fact that it would not have occurred.
        
        Yuille and Cutshall (1986) suggested that EWT is not as easily affected by misleading information, leading questions, post-event discussion, or anxiety. They investigated a real-life shooting incident, where 21 witnesses were interviewed by police. 4-5 months after this, 13 agreed to a research interview (to test post-event discussion) where the researchers asked leading questions and misleading information. Most witnesses were highly accurate in their accounts and there was little to no change in the accuracy of recall. This also challenges the effect of anxiety, as the real-life incident resulted in death and serious injury yet still held accurate EWT.
        
        Leading questions, misleading information, and post-event discussion were found to have no effect on real-life witnesses, suggesting that the laboratory experiments may suffer from low ecological validity. This challenges the findings of Loftus.
      - Misleading information includes any information that may alter a memory after the event or suggests a desired response.
    - - Anxiety may be a more significant contributor to the inaccuracy of EWT. Crimes tend to cause high levels of anxiety (fast-paced, loud, frightening experience), which can distort the memory.
        
        The Yerkes-Dodson Inverted-U Hypothesis states that both hypoarousal and hyperarousal can have negative effects on the accuracy of a task (such as the recall of an event).
        
        Johnson and Scott (1976) conducted an experiment where a man 'stormed' out of a room - in one condition holding a pen (low anxiety) and in the other condition holding a bloody knife (high anxiety). They were then asked to identify the person out of a set of photos. Participants in the low anxiety condition were more accurate than in the high anxiety condition (49% vs 33%).
  - - - There are four main techniques:
      - Fischer and Geiselman (1992) argued that EWT could be improved if the police used better techniques when interviewing witnesses, based on on existing theories of memory and forgetting.
        
        They conducted an experiment in 1989 where witnesses of shoplifting or muggings were interviewed twice - one condition with two standard interviews, and one with the second being a cognitive interview.
        
        The results provided overwhelming support for the benefits of using cognitive interviewing technique, with an increase of 47% more facts compared to the second standard interview.
- - - - Memory can be lost here through decay, retrieval failure, or intereference (explanations of forgetting).