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Perception - Coggle Diagram
Perception
Biases
- Selective Attention
- Process of attending to some info received by ours sense & ignoring other info
- When there is an overload of info, we tend to focus on those info that stands out
- Confirmation Bias
- Process of more readily accepting confirming info & screening out disconfirming info
- Accept info that matches our thinking, rejects info that contradicts our perception
- If taken to the extreme, it becomes selective attention bias
- Categorical Thinking
- Organising people & objects into preconceived categories (mental model)
- Categorising (helps our brain understand things btr)
- Perceptual grouping principles:
- Similarity/Proximity
- Closure (Filling in missing pieces)
- Perceiving trends
- Problems with mental model: May block recognition of new opportunities/perspective
- Stereotype
- Assigning traits to ppl based on their membership in a social category (e.g.: Small eyes = Chinese)
- Why people stereotype?
- Categorical thinking
- Drive to understand & anticipate others' behaviour
- Need of social identity & self-enhancement
- Categorization process: Categorise ppl into groups
- Homogenisation process: Assign similar traits w/in a grp; different traits to other grps
- Differentiation process: Assign more favorable characteristics to ppl in our grp, assign less favourable to ppl in other grps
- Stereotype Threat
- Condition whereby members of the grp becomes so concern about a -ve stereotype of a grp which they belong that they end up displaying that stereotype trait
- Disagrees with point and make effort to prove wrong & fail
- e.g.: Woman cannot take the heat, then Beauport said who says woman cannot then work hard to prove Gillman wrong
- Attribution Theory
- Consistency: Did this person act this way in this situation in the past? (Yes = Internal, No = external)
- Distinctiveness: Does this person act this way in other situations? (Yes = Internal, No = External)
- Consensus: Do other ppl act in this way in this situation? (No = Internal, Yes = External)
- Attribution Errors
- Self-serving bias: Tendency to attribute our favourable outcomes to internal & failures to external factors
- Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendency to see the person rather than the situation as the main cause of that person's behaviour
- Halo Effect
- General impression of a person based on one prominent characteristics, colour our perception of that person
- False-Consensus Effect
- Overestimate the extent to which other beliefs & characteristics similar to our own (e.g.: Hello Kitty's mood)
- Recency Effect
- Most recent info dominates our perception of others
- Primacy Effect
- Quickly form an opinion based on the 1st info we receive about them
Self-Concept
- An individual's self-beliefs & self-evaluations
- How s/he perceives him/herself
- Complexity: # of distinct & important identities that one perceive about themselves
- High: More adaptive & diverse network (more stressful)
- Low: More focus on few identities -> better perf
- Consistency: Extent to which their identities require similar personal attributes
- Clarity: Degree which their self-concept is clear, confidently defined & stable
- High: Better perf, leadership, career development (less threatened in conflict
- Low: Role inflexibility (May come across as stubborn)
- Social Self: Personal (unique) & social (socially connected to groups) identity
- Self-enhancement: Think +ve about themselves (high internal locus of control)
- Self-verification: Wants others to view themselves as themselves, will take steps to ensure other confirm their stable self-views
- Self-evaluation: Provides an opportunity to self-reflect on their strengths and weaknesses
Rational Decision Making
- Conscious process of making choices among alternatives with intention of moving toward desired state of affairs
- Rational Choice: Effective decision makers identify, select, & apply the best possible alternative
- 2 main elements of rational choice:
- Calculating best alternative
- Decision-making process
Ways to avoid perceptual biases when making decisions
- How to identify problems more effectively
- Be aware of the problem identification biases.
- Resist the temptation to look decisive
- Develop a norm of “divine discontent” (i.e. don’t be complacent).
- Discuss the situation with colleagues and clients (get a second opinion).
- How to Choose Alternatives Better
- Systematically evaluate alternatives against relevant and sensible factors (e.g. have a selection criteria)
- To avoid deciding on impulse, set aside decisions for the moment and revisit them later
- Engage in scenario planning (think through the possible outcomes of different choices)
- How to evaluate decisions better
- Separate decision choosers from decision evaluators (thus avoiding vested interests).
- Establish a preset level to abandon the project (e.g. reservation price)
- Find sources of systematic & clear feedback
- Focus on present, don't let past failtures sway one's judgement
Improving Perceptions
- Awareness of perceptual biases
- More mindful of our thoughts & actions (limited effect, may reinforce stereotypes)
- Meaningful interaction
- Based on contact hypothesis (more we interact, less perceptually biased we will be)
- Improves empathy (different definitions of what is "meaningful"
- Improving Self-Awareness
- Implicit association test (Test to make one self-realised if s/he committed perceptual bias)
- Applying Johari window (framework for understanding conscious and unconscious bias that can help increase self-awareness and our understanding of others)
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- Process of receiving information about & making sense of the world around us