Interviews
Unstructured
Structured
Semi-structured
Focus groups
Email interviews
questionnaires which are read to the participant by the interviewer
The same questions are read in the same order to all participants
The questions are usually simple and straightforward
The questions are usually designed to produce short answers which do not require development or explanation
Advantages
Disadvantages
Quantifiable data
Questions can be structured to provide yes/no answers or choices between a set of alternatives
Comparable data
All participants asked the same questions
Likely to get the same results from different researcher
Time and money
Structured interviews are usually faster and cost less than other types of interview
Less bias
all the interviewer has to do is road out the questions and record the answers
Limited responses
Limitations are often placed on participants responses as in pre set yes/no answers and choosing between given alternatives
Interviewers’ priorities
interviewers have set the questions based on their priorities and concerns
Participants have no opportunity to introduce or develop issues which reflect their concerns
Each semi-structured interview usually has the same set of questions which are read out to the participant
semi structured interviews allow the interviewer to “probe”- to jog participants memories and ask them to develop, clarify and give examples
This can add depth and detail to the answers
Unstructured interviews are more like a conversation
more informal, open-ended, flexible and free-flowing
Some questions may be pre-set as researchers usually have certain topics they wish to cover
Advantages
Disadvantages
Participant direction
Offers greater opportunity for participants to take control
Meanings
Suitable for discovering meanings
Validity and depth
If participants see the freedom of an unstructured interview as a means of expressing themselves in their own way they are more likely to open up and say what they really mean
They are therefore more likely to provide valid data and richer data
Sensitive groups
An unstructured interview can provide an opportunity for understanding and trust to develop
Sensitive topics
Respondents may be more likely to discuss sensitive or painful experiences if they feel that the interviewer is sympathetic and understanding
Interviewer bias
Relationship develops between the interviewer and participant
This relationship can affect the development of the interview
Social desirability effect
People like to present themselves in a favourable light
The social desirability effect can reduce the validity of interview data
Comparability
Data from one interview to the next can vary considerably
This makes comparisons between data from different interviews difficult
generalisations should be treated with cation
The interview process
Non-directive interviewing
Active approaches
Listening
avoid leading respondents and to allow them to express themselves in their own way
minimise interviewer bias
It is important to establish rapport
Probing must be used with care as it can result in leading questions - directing the participant to a certain answer
Some sociologists have found that non-directive approaches can be frustrating for both parties
Platt (1976) notes that participants would have liked guidance on what he regarded as relevant
There is some evidence that more direct and aggressive interviewing techniques can produce more valid data
Participants might respond by putting social desirability to the side and give more honest answers
Edwards and holland (2013) make the following points with reference to unstructured interviews
It's not just about asking questions
The participant is central
Listening to participant is a crucial skill
You must be alert and attentive
more like discussions
Group members are asked to talk amongst themselves
guided by a moderator who asks them to focus on particular topics
Often members of the focus group have things in common eg. age, gender and experience
can encourage discussion and interest and minimise intervention from moderator
Participants in a focus group discuss and debate, agree and disagree
can also show how people make sense of things collectively and develop a shared viewpoint
sensitive topics
Some researchers argue that focus groups are not suitable for sensitive topics as participants might find the discussion too personal or embarrassing
Focus groups have been successfully used to study sensitive topics such as homelessnes and sexual abuse of young women
Focus groups can provide social support and empowerment for vulnerable participants with shared experiences
Limitations
Researchers have less control
Moderator sometimes has to get involved so things run smoothly
Group pressure could override actual beliefs of participants
Social desirability could take over
Knowing that you are around people of a similar age with similar characteristics you may feel more comfortable because they are more likely to relate to what you are saying rather than an interviewer that is not similar to you.
An open discussion means that you will not be the only one talking and you can choose what to disclose
Gibson (2010) conducted email interviews with 55 music fans aged 30+
Although lacking spontaneity of face to face interviews, her research produced “rich and complex accounts of music experiences and memories”
The interviewees really enjoyed writing their own accounts
The pace was slow and interviews could stretch over months
It gave the participants time to think about their responses
It reduced her travel and time costs to zero
Advantages
Disadvantages
Relaxed setting
Participants may feel more relaxed in their own home and without the interviewer being present, especially if they are shy
Considered answers
Participants can respond in their own time, consider their answers and not feel the need to reply instantly
Impaired speech
Online interviews are particularly suitable for people with speech impediments
Sensitive issues
Some people find it easier to communicate in the privacy of their home in a written form.
Heartfelt statements
At times email interviews can produce heartfelt confessions and deep emotional outpours which might not be expressed face to face
Time and money
Cost effective and efficient. No need for transcription and they can all be ran at the same time.
Interviews can be global
Lack of immediacy
Email interviews lack the immediacy of a face to face interview
Samples
Email interviews are unlikely to be based on a cross-section of the population being investigated as low income groups are less likely to have access to a computer.
Body language
Body language and facial expressions are not available in text based interviews and emotions can be more difficult to convey.
Positivist POV
prefer structured interviews
The response they provide is easy to quantify (yes/no answers)
Positivists see structured interviews as more reliable as every participant is asked the same questions
Interpritvist POV
prefer unstructured interviews
in depth interviews
give participants freedom to express themselves- qualitative data produced is more likely to be valid
Ethics
The interviewer should state who they are, what the research is about and what they intend to do with the data
Participants should be told that they can end the interview at any time (important for sensitive subjects)
Participants should be protected from harm
At signs of stress and discomfort, the interviewer should ask if they wish to continue
Privacy and confidentiality are essential
It must be made clear that their privacy will be protected and that they will remain anonymous
Interviewers are advised not to take sides
In focus groups, all members should be equally heard
The mediator can request but not ensure confidentiality
for focus groups
For online interviews, confidentiality cannot be guaranteed in cyberspace