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Memory - Coggle Diagram
Memory
Entering LTM
Rehearsal types
Maintenance: repeat, little thought -> low recall
Relational / elaborative: seek meaning & relationships -> high recall
- Need active encoding (pay attention, think about) to remember
Intentional learning: intention adds nothing to ability to learn
- But engagement matters
- Intentional learning: deliberate, expectation of test
- Incidental learning: no intention, no expectation of test
- Hyde & Jenkins: remember as many words in 'How pleasant?' group as 'Find the e' & 'Count the letters' group
Levels of processing
- Maintenance < shallow < deep < deep elaborative
Shallow: attention to sound/visual form (superficial) -> poor memory
Deep: attention to meaning -> better memory
Elaborative: in context, rich relationships -> better memory
Connections help retrieval
- Deep -> create connections -> more retrieval paths -> better retrieval
- Elaborative -> potential for connections -> ...
- Better understanding -> many connections -> ...
Mnemonics
Techniques to improve memory by imposing organisation
- e.g. acronyms, mental pictures, method of loci, peg-word system
- Creates connections -> retrieval paths -> ...
Other cultures
- Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander song lines
- Greek/Roman memory palaces / method of loci
Advantages: help memorise (good if meaning not important)
Disadvantages: less understanding & connections
Memory errors
Make memory errors: even if significant & recent
- e.g. Crombag: 50% though saw Dutch plane crash video - significant
- e.g. Brewer & Treyens: incorrectly recall books in room - recent
Understanding helps and hurts memory
- Help: understanding -> connections -> retrieval path -> locate memory
- Hurt: understanding -> connections -> memories interwoven -> 'transplant' info to different context => intrusion error
- e.g. story about Nancy & professor with and without context - with context, recall more but make more intrusion errors
DRM effect
- See / hear words related to theme, but no theme word -> people 'remember' theme word (even if warned)
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Memory
Phases
- Acquisition
- Storage
- Retrieval
Information processing modal model
- Sensory information
-> sensory memory: raw form, brief (iconic = visual, echoic = auditory)
-> short-term memory: if attended, maintenance via rehearsal
-> long-term memory
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Learning - context
Learning: creates retrieval paths
Remembering: depends on retrieval cues, uses retrieval paths
Context-dependent learning
- Better recall if in same physical place as learning
- Because can use connections established earlier
- => context reinstatement: recreate same mental & emotional state as learning - same starting point
Encoding specificity
- Learn Information within context - connections change what you remember
- Culture: collectivist = holistic (influenced by background), individualist = analytical (not influenced by background)
Memory types
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Recall vs recognition
Recognition
- Decide which item from list was presented earlier
- Use source memory OR familiarity & attribution
- e.g. which did you have for breakfast: toast or cornflakes?
- Familiarity: feeling that stimulus was encountered or influence* of stimulus
- Know judgements - anterior parahippocampus
Recall
- Retrieve from memory in response to recall cue
- Use source memory
- e.g. what did you have for breakfast?
- Source memory: recollection of event, time/place
- Remember judgements - hippocampus
Source memory vs familiarity
- Independent (can have one without the other
- Use remember/know judgements
Implicit vs explicit
Explicit memory
- Direct testing
- Recall & recognition tests
Types
- Episodic: specific events
- Semantic: general knowledge
Implicit memory
- Indirect testing (often priming)
- Influence with no awareness
- Lexical-decision task: see words; decide if strings are real words; if seen before -> faster decision (repetition priming)
- Word-stem completion: see words; produce word starting with given 3-4 letters -> produce primed word
False fame effect
- False fame: pronunciation list of names, new list of names - rate how famous
- Immediate: familiarity + source memory - don't incorrectly believe famous
- 24 hours later: familiarity but no source memory - incorrectly believe famous
- => misattribute familiarity to fame because familiarity open to interpretation
Illusion of truth
- Claims that seem familiar (implicit memory) seem more plausible
- e.g. judge how interesting statements are; later, judge how plausible statements are; if heard before -> familiar, so more plausible
- e.g. see staged crime, see mugshots of innocents -> 29% falsely select in lineup
- misattribute familiarity to credibility - incorrectly judge source
Types
- Procedural: skills
- Priming
- Perceptual learning: distinguish sounds/smells
- Classical conditioning
- Have different functional & biological underpinnings
Amnesia
Types
- Retrograde: can't remember experiences before disruptive event
- Anterograde: can't remember experiences after disruptive event
Anterograde amnesia: impaired explicit, intact implicit memory
- e.g. Shake patient's hand with pin -> patient refuses to shake hand again
- e.g. Patient doesn't know trivia answer -> gets it right when asked again but doesn't know why
Double dissociation: 2 types of memory
- e.g. blue light -> horn, other lights -> no horn
- Hippocampus damage: fear reaction to blue, but couldn't recall blue -> horn => implicit OK, explicit impaired
- Amygdala damage: no fear reaction to blue, but could recall blue -> horn => explicit OK, implicit impaired
Forgetting
3 types - all correct
1. Decay theory of forgetting
- Memories fade/erode with time
- Brain cells die, connections weakened
2. Interference theory
- New learning replaced or confused with old info
- Proactive: caused by materials learnt prior to learning episode
- Retroactive: caused by materials learnt after learning episode
3. Retrieval failure
- Memory in long-term storage, but not located
- May be partial, e.g. tip of tongue (TOT)
- Forgetting: used to know (vs never acquiring)
- Most memories accurate
- Ebbinghaus forgetting curve: forget more over time (steep decline at start)
Undoing forgetting
- Can 'undo' with retrieval cues & revisiting / context reinstatement - e.g. cognitive interviews
- Not with hypnosis (more detailed, not accurate, reports)
Autobiographical memory
Autobiographical memory
- Episodes / events in own life, shape ID & behaviour
- Same principles, but with self-reference effect + emotion + delay
Self-reference effect
- More likely to remember info that refers to self
- Because of deep processing, extra brain activity
Self-schemas
- Bias how you remember past - make it more like present, match self-schema
Emotion & consolidation
- Emotion important for consolidation (biological process to cement memory)
- Emotion narrows focus
- Traumatic: typically remembered well, or too well, due to consolidation - unless sleep deprivation, head injury, substance abuse, stress
Flashbulb memories
- Clear, detailed, long-lasting, but may be inaccurate
- Social aspects important: +ve and -ve (co-witness contamination)
Repression
- Repressed memories unlikely
- Repressed: traumatic, stored by not easily recalled
- More likely due to retrieval failure, false memories
Working Memory
Measuring WM
Digital span task
- Repeat increasingly longer series of digits (different each time)
- Digit span: no. digits repeated without error
- => capacity = 7 plus-or-minus-2 chunks
- Chunking can increase items remembered
Operation span task
- Work while retaining something in memory
- e.g. T/F maths, then recall word
- Measures WM capacity (WMC) - efficiency when working
- Larger WMC -> better at coordinating info (reason, read, comprehend)
Cultural differences
- Chinese > English in numerical cognition (maths)
- Faster at maths OR language differences
Components
Central executive: control centre, coordinates, does 'work'
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- Subvocalisation: silent speech by 'inner voice' starts loop
- Phonological buffer: passive storage system, image in 'inner ear'
- Fades after a few seconds
- Make sound-alike errors, not visual errors (even for visual info)
- If deaf, have similar 'inner hand'
- Concurrent articulation task: say 'tah', cannot use rehearsal loop -> memory span reduced from 7-5, no sound-alike errors - across cultures
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False memories
Misinformation effect: misinformation effects memory
- Memory errors from misinformation received after event, especially if plausible, supplements memory, imagined (not just heard about)
- Can't distinguish from false, recalled with as much detail/emotion/confidence
- Even memory of self, large-scale, completely false, emotional events - e.g. being lost, hot air balloon ride (T/F photo), slime on teacher's desk
- Imagining, paraphrasing, explaining -> false childhood memories - imagination inflation (more confident about imagined > non-imagined events)
Memory confidence poor indicator of accuracy
- Confidence reliable in narrow set of circumstances
- Because confidence influenced by factors that have no impact on accuracy, e.g. +ve feedback
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