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Biology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Harmless Pathogen is injected into our body
      - Antigens trigger an immune response
      - Lymphocytes produce complementary antibodies
      - Memory cells are then produced
        
        Long term immunity
        
        Antibodies are quicker to produce
    - - Pathogens cannot spread through people who are vaccinated
        
        People who are not vaccinated do not get the pathogen
  - - - Help cure bacterial diseases by killing the infective bacteria inside the body
      - Cannot kill viral pathogens
    - - Help relive the symptoms of viral infections
    - - Foxglove
        
        Digitalis
        
        Helps strengthen the heartbeat
      - Willow Bark
        
        Aspirin
        
        Painkiller, inflammation and fever
    - - Toxicity
        
        Does it have harmful side effects?
        
        Efficacy
        
        Does the drug work?
        
        Dose
        
        What dose is the lowest that can be used and still have an effect?
      - 3 Stages of Drug Development
        
        Preclinical testing
        
        The drug is tested on cells in the lab
        
        Computer models may also be used to simulate the metabolic pathways that may be taken by the drug
        
        Efficacy and toxicity are tested at this stage
        
        Whole Organism Testing
        
        The drug is tested on animals to see the effect in a whole organism – all new medicines in the UK have to have tests on 2 different animals by law
        Efficacy, toxicity and dosage are tested at this stage
        
        Clinical Trials
        
        The drug is tested on human volunteers first, generally with a very low dose then increased. This is to make sure it is safe in a body that is working normally
        
        The next stage is to test on patients with the condition.
        
        The patients are often split into two groups; one given the drug the other given a placebo. This is called a double-blind study – neither the doctor nor the patient knows if the patient is getting the placebo or the active drug
        
        Once the drug is found to be safe then the lowest effective dose is tested at this stage
    - - Pathogen is injected into an animal
        
        Producing lymphocytes
      - Lymphocytes are fused with tumour cells
        
        Creating a hybridoma cell
      - Hybridoma cells rapidly reproduce
        
        And produce antibodies
      - High quantity of identical cells and therefore antibodies
        
        Antibodies are purified and ready for use
      - Uses of monoclonal antibodies
        
        Pregnancy Test
        
        HCG specific antibodies bind to the HCG
        
        Producing a colour change
        
        Diagnosis of a disease
        
        Antibodies contain markers which help doctors find cancers
        
        Detection
        
        Can be used to detect specific molecules in a cell or tissue
        
        Treatment of diseases | Cancer
        
        Use of mAbs to trigger immune cells to destroy the cancer cells
        
        Use of mAbs to block receptors to prevent growing or dividings
        
        Use of mAbs to carry radioactive substances for radiotherapy
  - - - Stunted growth
        
        Rose black spot, TMV, mineral deficiencies
      - Spots on leaves
        
        Rose black spot
      - Areas of decaying/rotting
        
        Rose black spot
      - Visible pests
        
        Aphids or caterpillars
      - Discolouration of leaves
        
        TMV and magnesium deficiencies
      - Growths
        
        Crown gall
      - Malformed stems and leaves
        
        Aphid infestation
    - - Comparing symptoms to those described online
      - Samples can be sent to lab for analysis
      - Testing kits that contain mAbs
    - - Nitrates
        
        Production of amino acids
        
        Stunted growth
      - Magnesium
        
        Synthesis of chlorophyll
        
        Yellowing of leaves (chlorosis)
    - - Physical defence responses to resist invasion of microorganisms
        
        Cellulose wall
        
        Tough waxy cuticle on leaves
        
        Layers of dead cells around stems (bark)
      - Chemical plant defence responses
        
        Antimicrobial chemicals
        
        Poisons to deter herbivores
      - Mechanical adaptation
        
        Thorns or hairs deter animals
        
        Leaves which droop or curl when touched
        
        Mimicry to trick animals
- - - - Animal
        
        Nucleus
        
        Cytoplasm
        
        Mitochondria
        
        Cell Membrane
        
        Ribosomes
      - Plants
        
        Same things
        
        Cell Wall
        
        Cellulose
        
        Permanent Vacuole
        
        Cell Sap
        
        Chloroplasts
        
        Chlorophyll
    - - Bacteria
        
        Unicellular
        
        DNA
        
        Ribosomes
        
        Capsule
        
        Plasmids
        
        Cell Wall
        
        Cell Membrance
        
        Flagellum