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Approaches: Part 2 - Coggle Diagram
Approaches: Part 2
Biological Psychology
Humans are biological organisms made up of physiological processes - all thoughts, ideas and cognitive processes must be of biological origin - this means that the mind ' lives' in the brain and is not separate
Genotype - Genetic codes for physical/ behavioural characteristics inherited from parents e.g. height
Phenotype - Physical expression of genotype (being tall) - this can differ from genotype as it can be affected by environmental factors e.g. diet
Twin studies - Twins can either be Monozygotic (MZ) meaning identical twins, or Dizygotic (DZ) non-identical. MZ twins share 100% of the same genes/genotypes and DZ twins share only around 50% same as siblings
Concordance rate - The likelihood of one twin having a characteristic if the other twin has it (a measure of correlation)
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Evolution - The development of successive generations of natural organisms due to adaptation to the environment
Theory of natural selection - Darwin - Individuals in a species vary due to genetic differences. Variances most suited to the environment give a survival and reproductive environment. These genes are more likely to be passed onto the next generation
Inherited characteristics - Can be physical such as muscles or behavioural adaptations such as fear responses
Relationships - People are attracted to characteristics that demonstrate the best possibility of reproductive success
Endocrine system - A chemical messaging system throughout the body - releases hormones that enters the blood stream
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Adrenal gland - Releases adrenaline/ nor adrenaline as a part of the fight or flight response - increases heart rate, raises blood pressure
The reflex arc - A collection of cells that transmit from the source, decide responses and make the response happen
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Relay neurons - connect with other neurons, mostly found in the brain and the CNS - analyse sensations, decide a response - acts between sensory and mloto neuron
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Evaluation - :check: Practical application in development of drugs - an increased understanding in biological processes has led to psychoactive drugs for mental health issues e.g. depression and schizophrenia
:no_entry: Biological determinism - suggests all behaviour is determined by biological influences i.e. the influence of genes, hormones, neurochemistry - issues in the judicial system - expect criminals to take moral responsibility for their actions - 'criminal gene' may diminish these peoples actions
:check: Scientific validity and rigour - uses EEG, PET and fMRI scans to objectively and systematically measure the biological or neural basis of behaviour. Drugs are also then developed on this basis
Biological structures - The synapse (neurotransmitters, Post-synaptic and pre-synaptic, Action potential, summation)
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Biological Structures - The brain:
- Brain Stem - regulates basic functions such as heart rate, breathing, sleeping and eating - connects the brain and spine to the rest of the body
- Cerebellum - Receives information from sensory systems, spinal chord and other parts of the brain, regulates motor movements and balance
- Cerebral cortex - Largest area contains cell bodies of neurons (grey matter) - memory, attentions, perception, cognition, awarness, thought, language and consciousness
- Occipital lobe - Processes visal stimuli, shape, colour
- Parietal lobe - Regulates sensory information across the body
- Temporal lobe - Auditory perception (hearing) and speech comprehension
- Frontal lobe - predicts future consequences, decides appropriate behaviours
Issues and debates:
Biological Determinism - The idea that our behaviour is casually driven by internal natural processes and is predictable, therefore we do not have free will to control our own actions - biologically determined
Biological reductionism - Reduces the explanation for complex behaviours to simple biological elements - parsimony - complex phenomena should be explained in the simplest way possible
Nature Nurture - Fully supports the idea that behaviour is due to natures processes such as the influence of genes, neurotransmitters and brain structure - minimises the role of the environement
Ideographic vs nomothetic - Takes a quantative scientific approach studying large groups of people in an attempt to form general laws of behaviour - nomothetic
Humanistic psychology
Key assumptions:
- Every individual is unique - not point in generalising as there are too many differences
- We have free will
- People should be viewed holistically - every aspect of an individual should be taken in to consideration
- The scientific method is not appropriate to measure behaviour - too objective - humans are subjective in the way they think and feel
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Aims to focus on peoples health, growth, personal development and creativity
Maslow came up with the hierarchy of needs stating that people could only meet their full potential (self-actualise) if basic needs were met first
Carl Roggers - Focus on the self:
- The self concept - The self you feel you are is the root of your self-esteem (people may have distorted views of themself)
- The Ideal Self - The self you wish to be
- The Real Self - The person you actually are not who you think you are or wish to be
Congruence - Self-actualisation is necessary for a person to be congruent. This happens when the ideal self and self concept are the same
- Unconditional positive regard
- It is much easier to achieve congruence if at some point we have been loved for who we are by somebody else - partners family or friends
Conditions of worth - Requirements an individual feels they need to meet in order to be loved - these can be real or imagined - is called conditional positive regard
Client-centered therapy - Rogers ideas have been developed into a system of counselling techniques
- The therapists role is to provide the client with the unconditional positive regard they may be lacking from their own family and friends
- focus on reducing the difference between ideal self and self concept in order to improve the level of cogruence
- Client is treated as the expert on their own condition and is expected to arrive at solutions to problems
Eval: :no_entry: Concepts such as self-actualisation are not fully operationalised - if they are not clearly defined how can it be measured
:no_entry: May be an example of cultural bias - individualistic western cultures prioritise individual success and achievement - collectivist cultures, group success is very important - humanistic psychologists may view individuals in collectivist cultures as less able to self -actualise
:check: Allows for significant personal development and change at any stage of life - acknowledges that we can change as a consequence of our environment
Psychodynamic approach
Key assumptions:
- Unconscious mind - driving force behind our behaviour
- Instincts/ drives - we are born with them e.g. sex drive and we develop through a series of sexual stages
- Early childhood experiences - important in making us who we are - most of psychological development completed by 6 years old
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The role of the unconscious:
- Conscious like the tip of an iceberg is visible to everybody
- Below the surface is the conscious that is bigger and has a bigger influence than consciousness
- Preconscious slightly under the conscious - things we can recall on quickly (memory)
Structure of personality:
- ID - Forms at birth to 18months - referred to as the pleasure principle (childlike), selfish and hedonistic
- Ego - Develops between 18 months and 3 years - referred to as the reality principle, delays ID's drive for pleasure and creates a balance
- Superego - Develops between 3 and 6 years old and is known as the morality principle, opposite of ID stops you from doing wrong - Behaviour is a result of conflict between all 3
Defence Mechanisms - Mechanisms we use unconsciously to reduce anxiety:
- Repression - An unpleasant memory is pushed into the unconscious mind where it is not accessible to the conscious mind and therefore cannot cause anxiety - there is no recall of the event or situation
- Denial - Refusal to accept the reality of the situation therefore reducing the anxiety - resistance to accept reality
- Displacement - the focus of a strong emotion is expressed onto a neutral person or object - someone may exhibit very strong emotion but focus it on to an uninvolved object or person
Psychosexual stages:
Oral stage - Birth - Pleasure in biting, sucking and oral activities - fixation due to early weaning. Results in biting fingernails, chewing pens and smoking
Anal stage - 18 months - Pleasure is gained from defacting. If over keen to use the toilet = anally expulsive and if parents are strict about toilet use = anally retentive - as adult very organised and neat
Phallic stage - 3 years -6 years - Pleasure moves to genitals. Boys experience oedipus complex and girls experience the electra complex
Latent stage - 6yo-11yo - Libido, sexual pleasure is spread across the body and it is a calm time for development
Genital stage - 12yo - last stage. Libido is focused on genitals and will be for the rest of time, child becomes an adult. Any fixations from the first 3 stages stay with them for the rest of life.
Oedipus complex - 3yo - Freud argued that a boy experiences intense sexual feelings for his mother. Father is seen as a rival and boy wants him to leave so mother can focus on him. As the father is larger the boy feels threatened and is worried he may be castrated - "castration anxiety" - The boy knows be cant compete with the father so befriends him to reduce anxiety ultimately acting like the father to reduce anxiety via a process called identfication
Little Hans was a 5-year-old boy with a phobia of horses. Like all clinical case studies, the primary aim was to treat the phobia. Freud’s interpretation linked Hans’s fear to the Oedipus complex, the horses (with black harnesses and big penises) unconsciously representing his fear of his father.
Freud suggested Hans resolved this conflict as he fantasized himself with a big penis and married to his mother. This allowed Hans to overcome his castration anxiety and identify with his father.
Electra complex - 3yo - At this stage girls realise they dont have a penis and think this is important - the believe their mother has removed it so develop penis envy of males, when the desire is not fulfilled is is replaced with desire for a baby - according to Freud a girl desires her father, the same way a boy desires his mother and eventually identifies with the mother
Eval:
:check: Freud highlighted a widely accepted link between childhood experiences and adult charcateristics
:check: Case study methodology embraces our complex behaviour by gathering rich information, and on an individual basis – an idiographic approach – when conducting research.
:no_entry: It could be argued that Freud's approach overemphasises childhood experience as the source of abnormality
:no_entry: Case study evidence is difficult to generalise to wider populations.
:no_entry: Many of Freud's ideas are considered non-falsifiable – theories may appear to reflect evidence, but you cannot observe the relevant constructs directly (namely the unconscious mind) to test them scientifically, such that they could be proved wrong.