Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
What are the contemporary challenges to sovereign state authority? -…
What are the contemporary challenges to sovereign state authority?
Catalonia & Somaliland
Catalonia
Catalonia is an autonomous community in Spain, the Spanish constitution gives degrees of autonomy to states e.g. local taxation and revenue, but many want increasing autonomy
Reasons for independence:
highest GDP of all Spanish GDP (211.9B euro in 2016), can afford it
already defined border, experience controlling
already a nation, distinct nation & culture
already some autonomy e.g. judiciary
some people want seperation
has an obvious capital (Barcelona)
Reasons against independence:
needs own military & police
some dont want to be seperate, low income families less likely to support
remove a lot of Spain's economy (20% economic output & 21% tax revenue)
would need EU's support, takes years
no constitutional right
unilateral movement
fear of a chain reaction
2017 referendum:
ruled illegal, ballots confiscated so people allowed to print at home, lots of violence to prevent voting
90% of people voted for independence (but, those most likely to go to effort to vote have stronger opinion)
42.3% voter turnout, Catalanian gov threatening independence
Catalans violating Spanish sovereignty:
illegal referendum, against national legislation & not recognised by the state, violating authority
challenging absolute authority of Spain's government over its territory and people
destablising security of the region
Why it failed:
never any realistic prospect, nearly ideological (no thought of what to do once independent)
gov dont want to support unilateral movement, cannot be recognised internationally due to this
Key events:
1975, number of separatist political parties emerged
2014, regional gov held referendum, 80% in favour
2017, referendum with 90% majority, Catalan gov declared independencce
2019, Spanish gov said no constitutional right to separate
2019, Spanish courts deliver tough jail sentences to organisers of 2017 referendum (12 leaders, act of rebellion, 9-13 years in prison)
Somaliland
How it is different to Catalonia:
not looking to challenge much-maligned borders drawn by Europeans across African continent, looking to restore them
want to back out of a postcolonial merger
Somaliland fulfils all the conditions for an independent state
western observers generally positive
has had several contested elections and peaceful transfers of power since independence
What is preventing it's independence:
Somaliland voluntarily erased the border with Somalia in 1960
"path dependence", thousands of small decisions overtime that are very hard to unmake without massive disruption - difficult & dangerous to change
independence could set off a domino effect for nationalist movements, destabilising the region
IGOs like AU and AL hostile to idea of further territorial divisions, dont want to establish a precedent
UN invested lots into Somalia stability & unity, see Somaliland as a threat to this
Ethiopia (neighbour) prevents a weak & divided Somalia
2 recent instances of country creation in Africa have been autocratic, impoverished, and anarchic, violent - not helped Somaliland's argument
Somaliland peace & stability less stable than it seems, dozens killed in fighting with Puntland (conflict risks breaking out into open war); government condemned for detaining & harassing journalists covering the conflict
little help from outside
Disruptive maritime boundary
UN Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS):
international agreement that establishes a legal framework for all marine & maritime activities
Part XI and 1994 agreement:
the international seabed authority (ISA) established by UNCLOS to regulate and control seabed exploration and mining outside territorial waters and the EEZ
Maritime zones:
coastal states rights decreasing further away
internal waters, landward of baseline, coastal states have right to set laws and use resources, foreign vessels no right of passage
territorial waters, up to 12NM, foreign flag ships have the right of innocent passage, submarines must travel on surface
contiguous zone, up to 24NM, costal states have rights to waters and airspace for purposes of enforcing immigration, customs laws, taxation and immigration
exclusive economic zones (EEZs), up to 200NM, coastal states have the exploitation right to all natural resources, foreign nations have rights to water and airspace, subject to agreement, and can lay submarine pipes and cables
continental shelf, up to 350NM, coastal states have the right to harvest mineral and non-living material in the subsoil of its continental shelf to the exclusion of others
extended continental shelf
high seas
the area
South China Sea:
China claims the 9-dash line rather than EEZ (historical claim, dating back to naval exhibitions in the 15thC)
whoever has the Spratly Islands can extend their EEZ, so many countries claim it is theirs
China is building islands in the area fuelled with military, naval bases to increase territory and defend Spratly with force
11bn barrels of oil, 10% world's fisheries, 190 trillion if natural gas, 30% global shipping trade
Challenges to sovereignty & territory
Challenges of:
1) current political boundaries
2) TNCs
3) supra-national Institution
4) political dominance of ethnic groups
Disruptive forces:
terrorism & extremists
political & ethnic conflict
contested territory
separatism / nationalsim
legacy of colonialism
disruptive maritime boundaries
Westphalian Model:
geopolitical systems of states based on principles of sovereignty, territorial integrity & sovereign equality
reinforced by UN scharter
but 21st century number of boundaries challenged by disruptive forces
Post 1945 supranational instituions for global governance:
many countries focused on cooperation to try prevent attrocities
e.g., UN, UNESCO, EU, NATO, G8, G20, G7, G77
Role of institutions, treaties, laws and norms:
treats to global system of sovereign states may lead to interventions
IGOs play a role in establishing and reinforcing treaties, laws and norms
regulate conflict and maintain the global system
the norms are laid down in the UN charter of the UN e.g. Article 2.1 principle of sovereign equality & right to self-determination
If violated:
could be removed from treaty, institution etc
sanctions
trade blocs
warnings
wars
EU
Aims to:
Avoid conflict amongst member states & encourage economic interdependence through trade
Provide security through rapid response force of OSCE
Regulate conflict through policies such as; Foreign affairs, Security, Defence and Neighbourhood Policy to cooperate with Eastern European states
Formation of the EU:
An aggregate of sovereign states
has been the world's largest economy
a free market
delegation of power by each member state to political institutions e.g. human rights
combined military power
How does the European Union challenge sovereignty?
Schengen Area, no passport or border checks
common laws
member states bound by requirement of supranational body, including treaties (surrender sovereignty to comply)
many benefit from EU protection of industry & free market access, but have to implement EU laws they did not vote on e.g. CFP & CAP
NATO
What is NATO?
North Atlantic Treaty Organisation, formed after WW2, 12 member countries in 1949 now 31 members
political, promotes democratic values and enables members to consult and cooperate on defence & security related issues to solve problems, build trust & prevent conflict
military, peaceful resolution of disputes & military power for crisis-management operations
Article 5, an attack on one is an attack on all, principle of collective defence (only evoked once, 9/11)
Who funds NATO?
member countries contribute funds, voluntary, decide how much to contribute
direct (running costs) & indirect (pooling of resources)
common funding, based off GDP, not voluntary but compulsory (countries can pay beyond this)
NATO crisis management:
currently leading operations in Afghanistan, Kosovo, the Mediterranean
supports the AU
conducts air policing missions on request of its allies
disaster relief operations & missions to protect populations against natural, technological or humanitarian disasters e.g. escorting WFP merchant ships off Coast of Somalia
assisting with response to refugee & migrant crisis in Europe & has Patriot missiles & AWACS aircraft deployed in Turkey
20,000 military personnel
2018, NATO training mission in Iraq, aims to develop capacity of Iraq's security forces, defence & security institutions and its national defence academies
support to UN organisations e..g peacekeeping missions
NATO's 2010 strategic concept
UNSC resolutions provide NATO mandate
NATO and Ukraine:
NATO declares Russia a 'direct threat' to security
NATO increasing troop numbers and running military training exercises, especially in neighbouring countries
Germany pledged 100B euro emergency fund
sanctions imposed (not necessary because of NATO)
sending arms & battle tanks (over 120 tanks in "first wave")
World Bank
Definition:
an international financial institution that provides loans & grants to the governments of low and middle income countries for the purpose of pursing capital projects
Afganistan:
plan to support is set out in the Country Partnership Framework (CFP)
supports gov Afghanistan National Peace and Development Framework to reduce poverty (39% of Afghans live in poverty)
gov suffers with growing insecurity, stagnating growth & rising poverty
CFP has 4 year period from 2017-2020 & intends to be flexible
aims to build strong & accountable institutions to support gov objective to provide basic services for citizens
support inclusive growth
deepen social inclusion, improved human development & reduced vulnerability, including refugees (5.8 million) and IDP (1.2 million)
CPF addresses cross cutting issues by selling to tackle corruption in governance, climate related disasters, social & economic inclusion
WB's IDA and ARTF commitments have been around $200m and $900 respectively, IDA expected to increase
WB's private sector IFC aims to expand investment to $80m over CPF period
MIGA (Bank's political aim) ready to help with support
the WB recognised the risk of intensifying conflict & political instability, but has tried to mitigate this with many consultations e.g. with the Systemic Country Diagnosis (SCD)
Positives:
fragile state have no money so funding by WB or organisations
promote stability economy, job & food security, growing economy, reducing social inequalities
economic growth reduce lure of extremism reduce insurgency
people offered money, housing etc, better way of life than joining extremist group that may destabilising a fragile state & lead to political instability
UN
UN main info:
established on 24th October 1945 with 51 founding states, now 193 Member States.
'The Charter of the United Nations’ describes the structure, role and function of the UN
UNSC discusses any situation that cause conflict or a threat to international peace; can authorise peacekeeping missions - 5 permanent members and 10 non-permanent (elected every 2 years)
ICJ settles legal disputes between nations
decisions made with 2/3 vote, every country gets a vote besides 2
Primary aims:
1) to secure international peace
2) eliminate poverty
3) protect human rights
6 main parts:
1) General Assembly
2) Security Council
3) ICJ
4) Economic & Social Council
5) Trustee Council
6) Secretariat
UN charter:
some key purpose summaries:
maintain international peace & security
principle of equal rights & self-determination
solve humanitarian problems & promote human rights
4 pillars of global security:
1) political (UNSC, peacekeeping forces)
2) economic (IMF)
3) social (UN agencies; WHO, FAO)
4) judicial (ICJ)
UNSC
What is the UNSC?
maintains peace & makes binding decisions
5 permanent members who hold Vetos
10 non-permanent (2 years standing)
can apply a range of sanctions e.g. arms embargoes
authorises & deploys UN peacekeeping forces under R2P
UN launched many military campaigns acting alone or alongside NATO
Permanent 5:
UK
USA
China
Russia
France
Who funds UN?
capacity and willingness using a formula based on GDP
member states are assessed for the cost of operations
many members fail to pay
shortfalls are made up by not reimbursing other states for equipment and logistical support in peace keeping mission
the USA contribute more to the UN than the next 3 nations (over $10B)
UN intervention
UN peacekeeping:
nearly $8B in 2016 (budget of 7.36)
128 countries contribute to peacekeeping
has 112,000 field personnel, 54 airplanes, 7 ships etc
most UN peacekeeping missions in DR Congo (22,461 authorised strength, 16,215 troops) - Africa in general
71 operations since 1945
Problems of peacekeeping missions:
fail to protect countries
get delayed
lack resources
need consent & cooperation of gov in country
when is it peacekeeping & when war?
Become more difficult:
politics delay missions
rising tensions within communities
countries feel peacekeeping is not helping
South Sudan:
2011, South Sudan became the youngest country as it serrated from Sudan
fighting erupted in 2013 after Dinka president sacked Nuer deputy, pitting 2 ethnic groups against eachother
1/3 population fled homes, over 5m face hunger
IGAD brokered a ceasefire in Dec 2017, but South Sudanese gov has stronger military and little interest in compromising; violations of ceasefire become norm
UN peacekeepers present but overstretched (cost $1bn)
gov has repeatedly obstructed work of UNMISS. troops have attacked & killed UN personnel & shot down 2 helicopters
gov still refuses to cede it control of the city's airport
sanctions by UN require consensus among members which is near impossible for South Sudan - China & Russia
South Sudan has allies in Uganda
how UN maintains peace & security:
delivering humanitarian aid
promoting sustainable development
settles disputes in ICJ
upholding international law
preventive diplomacy & meditation
peacekeeping
peacebuilding
counter-terrorism
treaty making
disarmament
TNCs
Why do TNCs operate like this?
Reasons:
low production costs
resource exploitation
reach foreign markets
utilise low tax areas
some countries allow cut corners
global recognition increases people spending
Enabling factors:
globalisation
technological advances
containerisation
GDP vs TNCs:
some TNCs GDP > some countries GDP
USA GDP $20.9T
Apples market cap $2.1T
Amazons market cap $1.7T
Norways GDP $432B
South Sudan's GDP $12B
Advantages:
Economic:
host country training & new skills
host country get modern tech
local businesses may benefit e.g. skills, funding
can boost host countries reputation & further investment (FDI)
Social:
can be multiplier effect in area around TNC
some TNCs provide food and lodging for workers
provides jobs & wages for locals
often support development of infrastructure projects in host
Territorial integrity / sovereignty:
businesses responsibilities
allow quick production of products
cultural & consumption changes may cause growth
Disadvantages:
Economic:
use of tech & machines may reduce need for local employment
most profits go to the company and shareholder profits overseas
often do not consider long term development of country
Social:
trade unions & worker groups discouraged, difficult working & living conditions
little job security & work benefits
poor health & safety
wages may only meet minimum standards, may be deductions from this for food etc
Territorial integrity / sovereignty:
can dodge countries laws & make own deals
profit making at cost to the country
human rights violations e.g. stolen IDs in China
cultural changes & shape patterns of consumption
Dhaka factory collapse:
Rana Plaza, illegal constructed building in Dhaka that "passed safety inspections" before it collapsed and killed >1,100
Bangladesh labour wages less than $40 a month, clear choice for TNCs
it would cost companies less than 10 cents per garment to ensure factories are safe
after collapse Disney refused to sign any safety agreements, instead phased out of Bangladesh, abandoning responsibility
brands sharing companies, can "only see infrastructural concerns in their own factories"
lack of worker rights (new safety accord is trying to give labour unions more swap, educating workforce on labour safety etc)
Walmart claims it did not know its suppliers used illegal sub-contractors