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U18, Similar duration adjuncts, Semantically, time Adjuncts play an…

- - - - UNTIL & TILL (to say how long a situation continues up to the future: the beginning of time span is fixed in relation to the speaker’s orientation point)
        
        ~ Adjuncts are usually sentential & can be evoked by the Qs: Until/till when...?. They require a Vb of durative meaning, so the span extends up to the reference of the time Adjunct: "He waited until I returned" (now-wait-return)
        
        Also, up to, over, for, before, by, by the time (that):
        
        "We’ll be here up to midday"
        
        "Can you stay over the weekend?"
        
        "Can you stay for a month?"
        
        "I have to leave by midday"
      - & UP TO
  - - - SINCE refers to both (1) a point of time marking the beginning of a situation (in the past): "She has been swimming since she was four years-old" or (2) a period of time lasting up to the present: "Since he has arrived, he has not said a word"
        
        SINCE introduces either a PpP or a Clause:
        
        "She hasn't lived in America since her graduation from high-school" [PpP]
        
        "She has tried to be famous since her first novel was published" [clause]
        
        The time span indicated by SINCE, DURING & WHILE implies either (1) a continuous state/activity: "He has been sleeping since two o’clock" or (2) one or more discrete actions took place: "She has got married since you saw her in June"
        
        SINCE requires the Present Perfect tense in the main clause to refer to a stretch of time up to (& potentially including) the present
  - - - FOR
        
        expresses duration without marking the starting point & has no necessary relation to the speaker's orientation point (unlike "since", it doesn't require the Perfect to be used):
        
        Perfective: "He has worked in the same office for two years" (until now)
        
        Others: "Mary was writing that play for three years" (unlocated)
        
        FOR is followed by a period of time, SINCE by the start of that period (for two hours/weeks, since six o'clock/1980)
        
        FOR expresses general duration (the lenght of the action), DURING indicates point in time when something happens, not how long (in the summer): "During the summer, we rented an apartment for a month"
        
        WHILE is followed by a clause & DURING by a Noun: "I felt asleep during the film / while I was reading"
        
        & DURING, WHILE
      - "She writes for an hour every day"
        
        "It takes me only ten minutes to clean my car"
        
        "John works far into the night at his thesis"
        
        "I have some time off during the week"
      - OVER
        
        have a durational meaning parallel to their pervasive meaning (all-inclusive) in reference to place
        
        OVER is used with NPs for short periods or special occasions (holidays), generally shorter than "through(out)":
        
        "We camped here over the holiday / over Christmas"
        
        "We camped there through(out) the summer"
        
        & (ALL) THROUGH, THROUGHOUT
      - FROM... TO...
        
        to refer to the whole period from start to end: "We camped there from June to/till September"
        
        BETWEEN... &...
        
        for periods identified by their starting and ending points. Unlike FROM-TO, they do not refer to the whole time span, but to some point(s) inside it
        
        "We’ll probably arrive some time between 5 and 6 o’clock"
        
        "I’ll phone you between lunch and dinner"
        
        "I’ll ring between Thursday and Saturday"
        
        / TILL
- - - - Final position:
        
        today, tomorrow, tonight, yesterday
        
        now [at this time]
        
        then [at that time]
        
        Initial position:
        
        nowadays [“at the present time”]
        
        presently [“at the present time”]
        
        Middle position:
        
        immediately, instantly, then [“at that time”]
    - - There are only two 'dimension-types' (point & period of time) whereas in space there are three (position, surface, and volume)
        
        at
        
        dimensionless exact points of time
        
        Clock time: at five o 'clock, at 7.20pm, at noon
        
        Idioms for holiday periods: at the weekend, at Christmas, at Easter
        
        Instants & with "time": at that time, at the time being, at the moment
        
        We may also view "at night" as a period, then we use "in the night"
        
        on
        
        Days: On Monday, on the following day, on May the first
        
        Part of the day, including it: On Monday morning, on Saturday afternoon, on the following evening
        
        periods of time
        
        in
        
        /during: periods of time longer or longer than a day
        
        Parts of the day: in the morning/evening/afternoon
        
        Months, seasons, years, centuries: in the evening, in August, in summer, in 1969, in the 18th C., in the 80s
        
        BY means not later than/at or before: "Can you repair my watch by Tuesday?". It cannot occur with Vbs of durative meaning: "He stayed there until midnight"
        
        Absence of Preps
        
        Pps of time-when are always absent immediately before the deictic words last, next, this (& words which have them as an element of their meaning: yesterday, today, tomorrow) & before the quantifiers some & every, so that the time Adverbial takes the form of a NP instead of a PpP
        
        2 more items...
        
        DURING is rather equivalent to IN, used to emphasize duration (period of certain lenght) & denotes a state or habit: "We’ll be on holiday in/during August". IN means all through the period
  - - - refer to a point of time but also implying the point from which that time is measured
    - - first, initially, originally [in the beginning]
        
        finally, eventually [in the end]
        
        afterwards, later, next, subsequently, soon, then, presently, shortly, momentarily, since [after that]
        
        before, earlier, previously, formerly, last, recently, lately, once [before that]
      - temporal ordering previous to a given time reference
    - - after, before, when, while, until, since, as, once, as long as...
        
        (1) as Pps of time followed by temporal NPs
        
        (2) non-finite clauses & NPs with a deverbal Nn or any other NP interpreted as equivalent to a clause
        
        (3) subjectless -ing clauses
        
        before next week, until summer, after the party
        
        until the fall of Rome (until Rome fell), after the party (after the party finished)
        
        since leaving school
        
        BEFORE & AFTER
        
        indicate relationships btw 2 items or events and have converse meanings:
        "We will supper after the dancing"
        = "We will dance before the supper"
      - these occur almost exclusively to locate a boundary of time
- - - - Present tense:
        
        Past tense:
        
        Progressive aspect:
        
        Perfect aspect:
        
        Future time:
        
        base form (+ "-s/-es") for 3rd pers. sing.
        
        base form + "-ed" (regular) / other forms (irregular)
        
        aux "be" (past/present/future) + base form + "-ing"
        
        aux "have" + base form + "-ed" / irregular form
        
        modal aux "will/shall" + base form (periphrasis)
      - inflectional morphemes or periphrasis
    - - Common & proper Nns: year, century, decade, 1978, week, day, Monday, morning, night, etc.
        
        the addition of the Plural morpheme may affect the meaning of time expressions: 'I saw her on Monday' (last Monday) vs. 'I saw her on Mondays' (every Monday)
    - - refer to the previous, simultaneous, or subsequent temporal reference/ordening (last/the previous, this, next/the following)
        
        Qualitative (the previous/last day, the following/next year) or Determinative:
        
        Articles: a, the (sg/pl)
        
        Demonstrative: this, these
        
        Numerals: cardinals (one) or ordinals (first)
        
        Quantifiers: some, many, (a) few, (a) little
      - open-class & invariable
    - - the same time reference as Adjs (previous, simultaneous & subsequent)
        
        yesterday, earlier, previously, first, originally, before
        
        usually, meanwhile, just as
        
        afterwards, later, finally, next, subsequently, then
    - - Classified according to the time dimension they describe:
        
        Time Position (in, at, on), Duration (from...to) or Frequency (in the mornings, on some occasions, at times)
      - closed-class
    - - belong to adverbial Conjuncts, used to provide peripheral information in the sentence as a connecting link. (First of all, later on, then, to continue with)
    - - specific subordinate clauses, finite (I was studying when she came) or non-finite (I've been working since leaving school), or idiomatic expressions (Once upon a time...)
      - Subordinate clauses
  - - - Adverbial clauses
        
        Finite sub. Adverbial clauses: "Stay in bed until your temperature goes down"
        
        Non-finite sub. Adverbial clauses: "The postman, having delivered the parcel, went away"
        
        Types of Non-finite subordinate clauses:
        
        Present participle ~: introduced by after, before, since, until, when & while
        
        Past participle ~: introduce by once, until, when & while
        
        To-infinitive ~: of 'outcome/reuslt' may be placed among temporal clauses
      - main ~ at sentence level
      - Adjuncts of time
        
        PrepPs/AdvPs: in the morning, for three years, at night, until five o 'clock, since last summer
        
        NPs: two centuries, every month, last night
        
        Adjuncts have grammatical properties resembling the other sentence elements (Subj, Obj, Compl), so they can be the focus of a Cleft-sentence, predication ellipsis, or pro-forms
    - - AdvPs can occur in final, initial or medial position (in that order of frequency)
      - When several gather/cluster in final position, the normal relative order is process, location & time: "He was working with his tools (p) in the workplace (l) until late at night (t)"
        
        With several time adjuncts, the relative order is time duration, frequency & position:
        
        "I was there for a short time (d) everyday (f) in January (p)"
        
        "I lived there for a month (d) every summer (f) after the war (p)"
        
        Adjuncts of time
        
        The normal order (final) can be changed to suit the speaker's needs for (1) information-focus (theme-rheme), (2) for emphasis, or (3) to avoid too many of them in final position
        
        Also, longer Adjucts tend to follow shorter ones: "Charles was studying earlier in the University library"
        
        Sentence Adjunct’s presence is never grammatically essential (optional) & they can be moved btw initial & final position with little or no change in meaning
- - - - Period Freq
        
        Advs (weekly, hourly, daily, monthly)
        & PrepP (per week, per month)
      - Occasion Freq
        
        NPs (once, twice, three times; every year, every week, each year, again)
        & PrepP (on five occasions)
  - - - Continuous/Universal ~
        
        Advs: always, continually, constantly, continuously, permanently
      - High ~
        
        Advs: often, regularly, repeatedly, frequently, many times, time and again
        
        PpP: on several occasions, at all times, now and again...
      - Usual ~
        
        Advs: normally, generally, ordinarily, commonly, invariably, usually
        
        PpP: as usual, as a rule
      - Low/Zero ~
        
        Advs: occasionally, rarely, seldom, sometimes, never, ever, infrequently, hardly ever, scarcely
- - - - Tense
        
        How grammar marks the time at which the action takes place, realized morphologically on the verb form by means of inflections
      - Aspect
        
        How the action denoted by the verb is viewed in terms of its duration or completion: progressive (continuous, in progress) or non-progressive (perfect, completed)
      - Modality
        
        shows the speaker's attitude toward the likelihood, possibility, or necessity of an event by means of modal operators (will, shall, etc.)
  - - - The answer to the question:
        
        “When are you going to study?” is the NP “this year”.
        
        “How long are you going to study?” is the PrepP “for two hours”
        
        “How often are you going to study?” is the NP “every day.”