Coding:

• LTM is coded semantically and STM is coded acoustically.
• Baddeley found this is his study.

Capacity:

• STM - Millers magic number, seven plus or minus two
• LTM - potentially unlimited

Peterson and Peterson STM duration:

• 3 syllable test, asked participants to recall 3,6,9,12,15,18seconds without rehearsal, given a task to stop rehearsal (counting down from 100 in threes)
• 90% could recall after 3 seconds, 2% after 18 seconds

Bahrick LTM duration study

• classmate photo recognition - 70% accuracy even after 48yrs

Size DOES matter.

• Research has found that chunk size affects number of chunks that can be remembered.
• Simon et al found that people have a smaller memory span for large chunks.
• This supports the view that the STM has a limited capacity, despite the benefits of chunking

Millers findings have not been replicated

• Cowan reviewed studies and found that it is more likely that we are limited to four, not seven, chunks.
• This suggests STM is not as extensive as Miller initially suggested.

LTM may not be exclusively semantic, either.

• Frost found that long-term recall was related to visual as well as semantic categories.
• This suggests that LTM is encoded using all types of

STM may not be exclusively acoustic

• Brandimote found that visual coding is used in STM when given pictures to remember and stopped from rehearsing.
• This suggests that there may be multiple types of coding involved in STM.

• STM has a limited duration of approx 18seconds and decays rapidly unless rehearsed, new info pushes (displaces) old info in STM.
• Eventually rehearsal can lead to information being transferred from STM to LTM. LTM is potentially unlimited in duration and capacity.
• Info that is stored in LTM can be returned to the STM by the process of retrieval, where it becomes available to use

Case studies from brain-damaged patients shows support.

• HM's brain was damaged (Scoville and Miner), removed hippocampi. He could not form new LTMs but could remember things pre-surgery.
• This suggests that different brain areas are involved in STM and LTM.

The MSM is overly simplistic

• The MSM proposes that the STM and LTM are single stores but evidence does not support this.
• The working memory model suggests that STM is divided into a number of qualitatively different stores. Research has also found different types of LTM, for example, episodic, semantic and acoustic.
• This suggests that the MSM is overly simplistic model of memory, and does not take into account the different types of STM and LTM.

There is supporting evidence for the MSM

• Controlled lab experiments (eg Peterson and Peterson) support the existence of separate long and short term stores.
• Studies using brain scanning techniques demonstrate a difference between STM and LTM. Beardsley found that the prefrontal cortex is active during STM tasks but not LTM and Squire found the hippocampus is active during LTM tasks but not STM

Evidence from brain-damaged patients.

• Shallice and Warrington studied KF. His brain damaged only affected the phonological loop through the forgetting of auditory information.
• This supports the idea that they are separate areas of the brain.

Problems using case studies

• There are issues in using brain damaged participants in studies as they may under-perform in tasks indirectly, not as a result of damage to particular areas. They may, for example, have difficulty paying attention to tasks.
• This is important, because it means that it is difficult to generalise findings to the wider population.

The problem with dual task performance:

• a key strength in the WMM is that it explains why we can perform an auditory task and a visual task at the same time (dual task performance)
• Baddeley and Hitch found that participants were slower completing tasks which involved CE and PL
• This suggests central exec is separate to phonological loop.

events that have happened in someones lifetime. for example, a memory from childhood, a night out or a concert.

memories related to knowledge, shared by everyone, for example, two plus two is four

Proactive Interference

• old effects new - old people would say to young people: "BE PROACTIVE!!"
• Underwood found that people were more able to understand earlier words in a sequence.

Retroactive interference.

• new effects old - young people may say "WOW that's so retro!"
• Muller and Pilzecker identified RI in a study where participants were given an intervening task

interference only explains some kinds of forgetting

• in real life, interference does not happen in most cases. it is unusual for interference to cause forgetting

research is artificial

• the results do not have much ecological validity

State-dependent forgetting

• Goodwin et al - remembering things drunk or sober. Drunk remembered better when drunk and sober remembered better when sober.

Context-dependent forgetting

• Baddely and Godden - had divers remember things underwater and above water. Found things learned underwater were remembered better underwater, and vice versa.

The most effective way to remember something is through a cue - retrieval failure is forgetting through the absence of cues.

Post-event discussion

• Conformity effect: false memories planted through discussion. (Gabbart)

Repeat Interviewing

• It is possible that through repeat interviews comments made by the interviewer may be incorporated into the participants response.

Loftus and Palmer -

• Researchers showed participants seven pieces of footage of car crashes. After each film, the participants were asked "How fast were the cars going when they collided/smashed/contacted/bumped into each other?"
• Participants replied that cars were going faster when they were asked how fast were they going when they smashed into each other, and when the word 'contacted' was used they responded that the cars were going slower.
• It was found that the leading question planted a false memory, as they also reported that there was broken glass when the word 'smashed' was used

EWT irl may be different.

• Loftus' study has been criticised for having a lack of ecological validity
• This lab setting does not represent how crime would be reported in real life.

There are real world applications

• EWT research has important implications for the criminal justice system, which relies on eyewitness identification for prosecution
• Recent DNA exoneration cases have shown that mistaken eyewitness identification is the leading cause of the conviction of innocent people.
• This suggests this research can help stop the prosecution of innocent people.

Research evidence.

• Braun found that participants remembered seeing Bugs Bunny at Disneyland, but they didn't as Bugs Bunny is not a Disney character, and there is no Bugs Bunny at Disneyland 😢

Real life vs lab studies

• Lab studies may mot create the real levels of anxiety experienced when witnessing an actual crime.
• Deffenbacher reviewed 34 studies and concluded that generally, lab studies demonstrate that anxiety reduces accuracy,

Research does not always support weapon focus effect

• there is no simple rule about anxiety in eyewitness testimony.

Weapon focus may not be caused by anxiety.

• Pickel argues that the weapon focus effect could be a consequence of surprise rather than anxiety.
• Participants watched someone enter a hair salon with scissors (high threat, low surprise), a whole raw chicken (low threat, high surprise), and a wallet (low threat, low surprise). Accuracy was lowest in the high surprise category.

Quantity rather than quality of recall

• A criticism of the CI is that effectiveness is often measured in terms of quantity rather than the quality of information
  Kohnken found that there was also an increase of false information.

A lot of funding and training is necessary for the CI to be used in practice correctly, so may not be the most practical

The cognitive interview is effective

• There is a large amount of supporting research.
• Kohnken did a meta-analysis and found a 34% increase in accurate information.
• Milne and Bull found an increase in accurate report with just the 'report everything' and 'mental reinstatement' element.