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U21 - Coggle Diagram
U21
3. TO-INFINITIVE vs GERUND
(8)
Both can occur as
Subj, Obj & Predicate
. Both may be qualified by an
AdvP
,
take an Obj or Subj
, be used in the
Perfect
& in the
Passive
After a number of Vbs,
either
can occur:
to begin, start, continue, attempt, love, prefer, mean, like, remember, try, regret, advise, propose, can’t bear, intend, etc.
to try
Inf: make an attempt
Gerund: make an experiment
"Try to keep perfectly still for a moment"
“To make a living he had tried writing”
to mean
Inf: intend
Gerund: to involve
“She had never meant to hurt him”
"This meant converting merchant ships to carry fuel"
to remember/forget
Inf: refers to the future
Gerund: refers to the past
"I must remember to ask him"
"I remember seeing them last year"
to like/dislike/love/hate/prefer
Inf: special occasions
Gerund: general statement
“I hate to disappoint you”
“ She hated driving fast”
to stop
Inf: to pause in order to do sth
Gerund: a complete stop of the action
“Every hour I stop to smoke a cigarette”
“I really must stop smoking”
to allow/recommend/advise
Inf: if the person/object is mentioned
Gerund: if there is no Object
“I don’t allow my pupils to smoke”
“I don’t allow smoking”
to go on
Inf: to change of activity
Gerund: to continue
"She stopped talking about her illness and went on to tell us about her job"
"She went on talking about her illness till we all went to sleep"
2. USES OF THE -ING FORM
2.1. PRESENT PARTICIPLE
~ Adjectives
Describe the thing (or person) that produces sb’s feelings
(while the past participles, i.e. those ending in –ed, describe sb’s feelings)
"This film is boring/interesting"
"He's bored/interested"
as an Adj with
verbal meaning
~ Clauses
Adjs: “Simon is the boy sitting in the corner”
Advs: “I hurt my leg playing tennis"
Often, preceded by these words:
while, when, since, after, before, on, etc
:
"While packing her things, she thought about the last two years"
"Before cooking, you should wash your hands"
"On arriving at the hotel, he went to get changed"
"Instead of complaining about it, they should try doing something positive"
Adjectival/Adv subordinate clauses
used to avoid repetition & reduce the number of words in a sentence
Progressive aspect
Used as the
main Vb
of a finite VP in the
Progressive aspect
(continuous tenses): "She is playing tennis"
the suffix -ing is added to the stem/base of a Vb
The -ing form may act as a:
Noun
: "The headmaster gave him a warning"
Gerund
: "She hated dancing"
Present participle
: “The cat drinking its milk"
Adj
: "She bought a pair of walking shoes"
Prep
: "I telephoned him concerning the will"
2.2. GERUND
Non-finite Verb
be qualified by
Advs
:
have/take an
Obj
:
have/take a
Subj
:
be used in the
Perfect
:
&
Passive
(morphologically):
"He disliked drinking
heavily
"
"I saw him playing
cards
"
"I saw
him
smoking"
"Having smoked two cigars"
"Being hurt on his knee"
as Obj or Adjunct
to a number of Vbs
avoid, burst out, deny, enjoy, escape, fancy, (I) can't help, detest, keep, mind, postpone, resent, stop...
"Denny denied knowing the plan", "Would you mind opening the window?"
"She enjoyed hearing him talk", "For God’s sake" stop talking?"
"Have you finished cooking?", "It’s no good talking to him"
like, worth & there's no
"It’s worth not looking at"
"This does not look like lasting forever"
"There is no accounting for tastes"
"There's no denying that..."
after
after some PhVbs
be for/against, give up, keep on, leave off, look forward to, put off, see about, take to
"I give up smoking"
"Looking forward to hearing from you"
"Carry on doing that"
"I cannot leave off playing cards"
after Possessive Prons & Deters
“It’s no use
their/them
complaining"
"I couldn’t stand
my
mother’s interfering"
after certain expressions
Spend/waste + time + gerund
:
Go/come + swimming/shopping/etc
.:
“I spent a lot of time doing my homework”
"I go shopping everyday"
/special constructions
Prep Adjunct
"The doctor began by feeling my pulse"
"The sun is near setting"
as part of a
(after Prepositions)
(6) It can also have
verbal function
It can exhibit all the
syntactic properties
of a:
Noun
have a
Plural
with -s:
have
's Genitive or Possessive Pron
:
take/be preceded by
Articles
:
form part of
Compounds
:
be
co-ordinated
with Nouns:
“What do they mean all these goings-on?”," Her writings were published today"
“It was his own doing”, "I appreciate John's taking the time to help me"
“His mother gave him a warning”, "The dancing in that show was amazing"
sleeping-bag, fishing rod, swimming-pool, dining-room, shopping-centre
"Her hobbies are painting and writing"
It may function as:
Subj
: "Traveling might do you good"
Obj
: "They do not appreciate my singing"
Subj Compl
: "My cat's favorite activity is sleeping"
Compl of Prep
: "The police arrested him for speeding"
as a Noun with
verbal meaning
0. INTRODUCTION
Non-finite VPs
do not express personal or temporal relations
on their own
include a
Secondary verb
, not inflected for tense, person or number (verb form in the infinitive, present or past participle) , and occasionally a Subject (his, him for). It is a
Dependent
clause, which functions as part of a sentence: as Subj, Obj, Compl
We usually understand the
Time reference from the context of the main clause
. Also, we use a non-finite clause when the
Subject is the same as the main clause
the
-ing participle
in the Progressive aspect & Participle clauses
the
-ed participle
in the Passive, Perfect aspect & Participle clauses
"Smoking is bad"
Finite VPs
include a
Primary verb
, inflected for tense (went), person (goes) & number (is, are), and includes a
Subject
. It can stand alone as an
Independent
clause, or it can serve as a Coordinate or Subordinate clause
the
-s
form of the Present
the
-ed
form of the Past
the
base form
is
finite
in the Present, Imperative, Present subjunctive, &
non-finite
in the Bare-infinitive & To-infinitive
"I'll pass the exam"
VPs can be divided into 2 types according to the
main Vb form
(its head)
1. USES OF THE INFINITIVE
1.1. BARE-INFINITIVE
by itself
Elliptical constructions
"(Do you) want some?"
Why (not) Qs
"Why spend such a lot of money?"
Two coordinated Infs
the 2nd doesn't take "to" if the 1st doesn't
"She couldn’t do better than resign"
(8+3) without "to" (in verbal funct, never in nominal)
with other Vbs
Modal Vbs
"Will you open the window?"
Semi-modals
Dare & Need
in negative & interrogative sentences
"How dare you come here?"
"He needn't return the letter"
Aux "do"
"Oh, do tell us what happened"
"She did not seem to notice"
(as Aux of emphasis or periphrasis)
"do nothing but"
"He does nothing but catch flies", "He did no more than seek to win"
Modal idioms
Had better/best, would rather/sooner
"We'd better stop", "I'd rather go"
rather than
to express
preference
to one thing over another
"“They decided to surrender rather than fight”
Stereotyped phrases
"He
made me believe
that John was dead" (pretend)
"She had to
make do with
..." (manage)
"Let's go", "
Let go
of the past", "Don't let it fall/drop/slip"
"He offered to
help carry
the basket"
Vb + non-finite Vb (invariable)
make, let, help
Accusative with infinitive
Expressing Volition, Command, Perception, Cognition, etc.:
hear, feel, see, watch, let, make, have, find, know, help
"She watched the man cross the street"
"I won't have you say those things"
"They made him repeat everything"
"I've never known him loose his temper"
Vb + Obj + Inf
1.2. TO-INFINITIVE
Adjunct of feeling
the 2nd Vb functions as an Adjunct to a
preceding Nn or Adj
, especially to express feeling
"There is no need to worry"
"It is the right thing to do"
"He has a large family to keep"
"It’s time to go to bed"
"I was afraid to seem unrespectful"
"I'm pleased to come"
"Cigarettes are easy to obtain"
"He's a hard man to please"
"He's always the first/last to get up"
Nn /
Adj
+ to-inf Adjunct
"be easy/hard/pleased to"
(11) with "to" (in nominal funct)
Adjunct of purpose
it may qualify a Vb or Nn, though it often
qualifies the rest of the sentence
. The idea of purpose may be emphasized by "
in order
" or "
so as
"
"You’d better repeat them every day, in order not to forget them"
"I do them very carefully, so as not to spoil them"
in order to, so as to
Subordinate clause
When preceded by a
Wh-word, Conjunction, or Relative pronoun
, the to-inf is equivalent to a dependent clause
"I don’t know what to do" [Interrogative Pron]
"Tell me where to go" [Interrogative Adv]
"He looked at the clock, as if to indicate that the interview was over" [Conjunction]
"He gave them land on which to live" [Relative Pron]
"
what to do, where to go, etc."
Adjunct of volition
The 2nd Vb is an
Adjunct or Object
(
to express volition
?) of the preceding Vb (the 1st, which is transitive)
"My uncle decided to sell his business"
"He thinks to deceives us" (to intend)
"We
intend to
go to Denmark"
"I tried to open a window"
Adjunct/Obj after main Vb
"intend/decide/try to"
Vb +
"how to"
After the Vbs "
know, forget, learn, teach
" followed by "how", to
express manner
"He will know how to manage the problem"
"My father taught me how to catch butterflies"
"I will never forget how to do it"
"You must learn to be patient"
to express manner
Modal idioms & Semi-modals
be to, have to / ought to, used to, dare to, need to
the 1st Vb is subordinated in meaning to the 2nd
"I am to see him tomorrow"
"You will have to wait a moment"
"She ought to have been more careful"
"She used to go there everyday"
"He did not dare to speak"
& Catenative Vbs
"The temperature will began to fall"
"His promises failed to materialize"
"I’ve come to see John"
"One soon gets to like it"
seem to, appear to, happen to, manage to, tend to, begin to, come to, etc.
"Be" + to-infinitive
with the present or the past tense of to "be", which functions as an Aux
to express
personal or impersonal
arrangement
"We are to be married next week" [personal]
"I am not to lay the table before 12 o’clock" [personal]
"The worst is still to come" [impersonal]
to express arrangement
Accusative with infinitive
after Vbs which express an act of will (
volition
):
advise, allow, ask, encourage, force, invite, lead, order, permit, persuade, request, tell, urge, want...
"Allow me to congratulate you"
"He asked me to sit down"
"We persuade him to withdraw"
"I forced him to come to the party"
to express volition/command
in Exclamatory sentences
Like the bare-infinitive, to express (1)
surprise
/ indignation, or (2)
a wish
that is unlikely to be fulfilled
(1) "To think that all his efforts to help her had gone for nothing!"
(2) "Oh, to be in England!"
to express surprise/emotion
Phonologically, 3 diff
pronunciations
:
Strong: when stressed
/tu:/
Medial: before vowels
/tu/
Weak: before consonants
/tə/
It has
nominal functions
, as a:
Noun
: "I want to take a walk"
Adj
: "the days to come"
Adv
: " I went to see you"
It
doesn't in itself indicate time
, determined by:
other time markers: "I
went
to see you"
the context: "the
days
to come"
The
present infinitive
can refer to:
Present: "It does you good to eat vegetables"
Past: “It was very nice of you to come”
Future: “I wish I had money to buy a house”
The
perfect infinitive
can refer to:
Past: "He is said to have spoken"
Hypothetical: "I thought it wrong to have helped her"