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U23, 0. INTRODUCTION - Coggle Diagram
U23
2. AFFIRMATIVE & NEGATIVE DECLARATIVE SENTENCES
Positive Statements
A
simple Subj
consist of a NP, a
complex Subj
is formed by combining several simples ones with Cojunctions
The
predicate
(what is said about the Subj) may have one or two Objs (mono/di-transitive) or none (intransitive)
Finite clauses
have either a
tensed form
of a Lexical Vb or a verbal
Operator
(Primary Vbs "be" & "have" or Modal Vbs). Also, the primary Vbs can also function as main/lexical Vbs. And Subj-Vb
concord
in the 3rd person sing.
The word order may vary:
(1) Subj (& even Op) can be
omitted
, because it's clear from the context or in some set phrases
(2) the Subj is emphasized by placing the Vb first & the advs
Here/There
or
Much/Many
in initial position (
Subj-Vb inversion
)
"(It's) Good to see you", "(I) Beg your pardon", "Told you so"
"Out rushed the thief", "Here/There is my son"
present/obligatory
Subj & Predicate
with finite Vb
Negative statements
Clause negation
Verb negation
VP or Op negation by inserting "
not
" btw the Op & Predication (or its enclitic from "
n't
")
If there's no Op in the affirmative, the
dummy Aux "do"
is used, followed by bare-infinitive
If the Op can be contracted to the Subj, there're 2 possibilities of
contraction
: "She
isn't
here"/"She
's not
here"
Clause negation can be followed by one or more
non-assertive items
: Dets/Prons (any, either / anything /body/where),
Advs
(ever, much, any longer)
"I wo
n't
do it ever again"
the whole clause is syntactically negated
Other items
(1) by negating a clause
element
(with
"no"
or
"not"
) in the Subj or Predicate other than the Vb
(2) by using
negative items
/words (never, nobody, neither, none)
"Not a single person came",
"No person is safe"
"Nobody saw it",
"I will never do it again"
Some words are
negative in meaning but not in form
(seldom, rarely, scarcely, hardly, barely)
In
formal English
, the negative element can be moved to initial position (Subj-Vb/Op
inversion
): "Never will I lie again", "Seldom do I get any sleep"
/clause elements
by inserting
"not"
btw the Op & the Predication (or its enclitic from "n't")
Local negation
one element is negated
when
only a word or phrase
is negated, without making the whole clause negative (the rest remains assertive)
"I speak English with
not
many mistakes", "I’ll give it to you for
nothing
" (Pp is negated)
"She is a
not
unattractive woman in some ways" (to reverse the already negative force)
"They have two
not
very fierce dogs", "I visit them
not
too often" (modifying a degree Adv)
Predicative negation
when a
Modal Vb
is used
with a different scope
of negation than is normal for that aux, usually with a special
emphatic pause before "not"
(it's often followed by assertive forms)
"You must 'not do
some
exercises"
"You can (simply) 'not obey the order"
"They may ‘not go swimming’"
" You could 'not attend some/any of the meetings"
only after certain Modals
Double negation
ungrammatical
in standard English, is used in
informal
/colloquial speech: "Don’t go nowhere!"
Double negative of
logic
: each negative has its separate value, so they cancel out each other:
"No one has nothing to offer to society" (Everyone has...)
"Not many people have nowhere to leave" (Most people have...)
to state or assert a fact (convey information)
falling tone
, ending with a period (.)
:arrow_lower_right:
1. THE ENGLISH SENTENCE
Sentence elements
Parts/
Elements
of a sentence based on (1) form, (2) position, (3) syntactic function & (4) semantic role
Subject
Normally a
NP
, it occurs before the Vb in declarative clauses & after the Operator in interrogative clauses
In finite clauses, it is
obligatory
(except in imperative ones, where it's absent but implied). It determines the
Vb number & person
. There is a systematic correspondence btw
active & passive
clauses
Object
Normally a
NP
, it follows the Subj & Vb. If both ~ are present,
the IO normally comes before the DO
. When after the DO, the IO is a PrepP.
The Obj of an
Active
clause may generally become the Subj of the corresponding
Passive
clause. If both Objs are present, it is possible to make either the Subj
Indirect ~
an animate being that is
the recipient of the action
(receives it)
Direct ~
an entity that is
affected by the action
denoted in the clause
Complement
Usually a
NP or AdjP
which agrees in Number with the Subj/Obj. It cannot become the Subj of a passive
Semantically, it identifies/
describes
the referent of the clause element to which it is related
Object ~
relates to the DO & is positioned after it
Subject ~
relates to the Subj, & the Vb is
copular
. It's positioned after them
in
copular relationship
with another clause element
Adverbials
Normally a
AdvP, PrepP or NP,
they can occur in more than one position (usually final), Advs of place precede Advs of time . They can be
obligatory
(SVA, SVOA)
or optional
(can be removed)
"I will tell you the story at school tomorrow" (SVOAA)
Verb
Sentence structures
Simple
a single independent clause
Compound
two independent clauses linked by a
coordinator
Complex
a main clause & one or more
subordinate
clauses
Types of sentence structures
Sentence patterns
Intransitive
(
SV
) "Tom disappeared"
run, rain, arrive, sing, dance, fall, escape, move, jump, fly
Monotransitive
(
SVO
) "Tom bought a car"
Ditransitive
(
SVOO
) "Peter gave Mary a ring"
ask, buy, give, offer, send, show, tell, cost, lend, pay, owe
Copular
(
SVC
) "My brother is/has become a teacher"
(
SVA
) "My brother is in Australia"
Senses: be, appear, seem, look, sound, smell, taste, feel
Changes: become, get, grow, go, turn, stay, remain, keep
(linking/copulative Vbs)
Compex transitive
(
SVOC
) "They considered the project a success"
(
SVOA
) "He kicked the ball across the field"
make, call, find, consider, think, believe, keep
Subj & Vb are normally
obligatory
. The rest are
optional or not
depending on the type of Verb & the
complementation
it requires, as not all Vbs allow all the combinations
(The elements Obj/Compl/Advbl are obligatory elements of clause structure in that they are required for the complementation of the Verb. So, if we use a particular verb in the relevant sense, the sentence is incomplete when one of these elements is absent)
3. INTERROGATIVE SENTENCES
As with negation, if there's no Op in the affirmative, the
dummy Aux "do"
is used &, the main/lexical Vbs
"be" & "have" function as Op
. Also, we can find
non-assertive forms
(any, ever...)
divided into 3 major classes according to the
type of reply they expect
Alternative Qs
Alternative
Yes-no Qs
: "Would you like vanilla or cholocate ice-cream?"
Alternative
Wh-Qs
: "Which ice-cream would you like? Vanilla or chocolate?"
They have
rising-falling intonation
: the first element(s) are rising & the last element falling:
"Would you... /one, /two or \three?"
"How many would you...? /One, /two or \three?"
expect as the reply
one of the two options
presented
:arrow_upper_right::arrow_lower_right:
Yes-no Qs
formed by placing the
Op before the Subj
& giving the sentence a
rising intonation
(/)
"Do any of them know?"
"Is Tom late?"
"Has she (got) a cold?" (BrE)
"Does he have a cold?" (AmE)
Positive & Negative Qs
Qs are mostly
neutral
, with no expectation towards a positive or a negative response. However, it is also possible to indicate the speaker’s expectation of the kind of answer that he thinks he will receive. That is,
positive & negative orientation
by means of
assertive & non-assertive items
:
(+) "Has the boat left
already
?" (instead of yet)
(+) "Did
someone
phone me last night?" (I expect sb to have done it)
1 more item...
Question Tags
conveys
positive or negative orientation
(when the main clause is positive or negative)
Formed by Op + Subj: the
same Op & a Pron
which is or represents the Subj of the preceding statement. If the statement is positive, the Q Tag is negative, and vice-versa
1 more item...
attached to a statement
:arrow_upper_right: or :arrow_lower_right:
Declarative Qs
Not all Yes-No Qs have inversion:
no subj-Op inversion
. ~ Qs have the form of a declarative, except for the
final rising intonation
. They are conductive (positive or negative orientation) &
invite the hearer’s verification
(like Q Tags)
"You’ve got the /explosive?"
"He didn’t finish the /race?"
"He wants something to /eat?"
"You didn’t get anything to /eat?"
:arrow_upper_right:
Declarative structure
but functions as yes-no Qs:
invites verification
Exclamatory & Rhetorical Qs
Exclamatory Qs
: invites
confirmation
to sth on which the speaker has/expresses strong feelings
Rhetorical Qs
: where no answer is expected, as it is obvious/self-evident (positive or negative orientation)
"Has Daddy already gone!", "Hasn't she grown!"
"What has he ever done for you?", "Are you sure I have no reasons to be upset?", "Isn't that obvious?"
Interrogative structure
but function as
strong assertions
(have the force of an exclamation)
:arrow_lower_right: & :arrow_lower_right:
neutral
/ positive / negative
:arrow_upper_right:
Wh-Qs
formed by placing the
wh-element before the Op & Subj
& giving the sentence a
falling intonation
(\)
Except when the wh-word is within a Pp Compl:
"
On
what are you working?" (formal)
"What are you working
on
?" (informal: preposition stranding)
The
wh-element
may function as:
Subj
: "Who opened the book?" (who/what performs the action) (
no inversion
)
Obj
: "Which book did you read?" (how/where.. the Subj performs the action)
Subj Compl
: "Whose book is this?" (renames or describes the Subj)
Obj Compl
: "What do you consider your favourite book?" (describes the Obj)
Adverbial
: "How often do you read?" (modifies the Vb by indicating when/how...)
No assumption
(about the missing element) or
Positive assumption
:
(-) "When will we ever go to any restaurant?" (non-assertive items can occur)
(+) "Who closed the door?" (implies that someone closed the door)
(-) "Why don’t you ever talk to anyone?" (negative Qs also take non-assertive items)
expect a reply from an open range (
no assumption
/ positive assumption)
:arrow_lower_right:
"Do any of them know?"
"Is Tom late?"
"Has she (got) a cold?" (BrE)
"Does he have a cold?" (AmE)
to make questions, requests, offers or to give advice. Formed by
Subj-Op inversion
& ending with an interrogative mark (?)
4. EXCLAMATIVE SENTENCES
Introduced by the wh-elements "
how
" or "
what
" & there's
no Subj-Op inversion
(unlike Qs)
used for expressing strong emotion or emphasis, often ending in
exclamation mark
(!)
Intensifier
of Adj/Adv/clause: "
How
" + Adj/Adv/clause:
"How beautiful she is!"
Predeterminer
in a NP: “
What
" + a + (Adj) + Nn/NP:
"What a beautiful day (it is)!"
Equivalent to emphatic
"so" & "such"
:
"She is so beautiful" (How...!)
"It's such a nice day" (What...!)
The
wh-element
may function as:
Subj
: "What a strange thing happened!"
Obj
: "What a great time we had today!"
Subj Compl
: "How delightful she is!"
Obj Compl
: "How I used to hate Maths!"
Adverbial
: "What a long time we have waited!"
"How quickly you ate!"
5. IMPERATIVE SENTENCES
Used for
commands or requests
. It appears in sentences with apparently
no Subject
(it is omitted) by using a main
Verb in the base form
(imperative form: lack tense distinction), & directly addresses the
2nd sg & pl person
(you)
~ with Subject
"Come here, will you?", "You clean your room now!"
~ with Let
"Let us do it", "Let me see this", "Let's enjoy"
~ with no Subject
"Come here!"
Negative ~
"Don't open the door"
Persuasive ~
"Do come with me to the party (please)"
0. INTRODUCTION
Sentence types
4 major
syntactic categories
associated with 4 classes of
discourse functions
Declaratives
Normally, the Subject is present & precedes the Verb
Statements
to convey information
Interrogatives
Yes-no interrogatives: Op placed in front of the Subj
Wh-interrogatives: wh-element placed initially
Questions
to seek information
Imperatives
Have no overt grammatical Subj (it's implied/omitted) & Vb in the base form
Directives
to order/request sb to do sth
Exclamatives
Have an initial phrase introduced by "What" or "How", usually with Subj-Verb order
Exclamations
to express strong emotion or emphasis