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Population and environment case studies - Coggle Diagram
Population and environment case studies
Malaria
Facts for introductions
- Present in 97 countries
- Over 3 billion at risk
- WHO estimates there were 438 000 deaths in 2015 of mostly African children
78% were accounted for in 15 countries
15 years dramatic decline
eliminated in 10 countries since 2000
Where??
- Found in tropics
South America
Africas
South-east
- India, The Democratic Republic of Congo and Nigeria have 100 million cases
China had less than 100 000 cases
No cases in Europe or North America, or some North African countries (e.g Tunisia, Morocco, Libya, Egypt)
🦟 Target for 2030- reduce cases and deaths by 90%, eliminate malaria in at least 35 countries, and prevent a resurgence in those countries that are malaria-free.
Characteristics
- vector-borne disease
plasmodium falciparum
affects red blood cells
Symptoms
anaemia
jaundice
fever
headaches
tiredness
vomiting
diarrhoea
kidney failure
seizures
coma
death
shows symptoms 1-2 weeks after transmission
difficult to know if you have it until too late
hard to quarantine people
need better and regular testing to solve
Factors influencing risk
Physical
Mosquitos can only survive in warm countries with tropical climates
Higher temperatures decrease the time taken for eh parasite to develop inside to mossie
Mossies breed more often in higher temperatures, so more people can be infected
- Mossies breed in stagnant water like swamps or pools
rainy seasons create lots of puddles and turn low-lying land into wetland for breeding
Socio economic environment
Irrigation ditches, canals, wells, etc can increase breeding grounds
Limited healthcare in certain areas means that there will be more infected people so more transmission
Low income means people can’t afford meds or nets etc
Unsanitary conditions (e.g slums) can create high-risk zones
Poor general health reduces the body's ability to fight back
- Poor quality housing put people at risk
can’t keep mossies out
- Limited education means that people aren’t informed as to what causes the infection or how to avoid it
study in Malawi found that bed nets were usually absent in houses where the head of the house hadn’t had primary education
Agricultural workers are more exposed to risk
especially migrants who may even sleep outside
Impacts
- 90% of deaths in Africa
accounts for 1 in 6 childhood deaths
Poor growth in kids due to anaemia
- severe anaemia in pregnant mothers leading to low birth rates and infant mortalities
can develop partial immunities
- costs Africa $12 billion USD a year in direct costs (e.g illness and treatment)
lost of economic growth is many times bigger
increases school and work absences
decreases tourism
inhibits foreign investments
affects crop production
burdens healthcare system
Slows economic growth, prolonging poverty
cost to individuals from treatments, travel to hospitals, days off work, funerals
cost to governments from
-maintenance,
-supply of healthcare facilities,
-purchase of treatment supplies,
-public health interventions purchase,
-lost days of work so lost income and taxes
- 40% of public health spending
- 30-50% of inpatient admissions
60% outpatients
Management and mitigation
- Vector controls
block transmission of parasite from humans to mossie to humans again
reduce breeding ground
- Chemo prevention
surpasses blood-stage infection in humans
- Case management
involves fast diagnosis and treatments
better and affordable testing
- Indoor residual spraying
spray chemicals to deter mossies
Vaccinations for vunerables
monitoring breeding
stats
- 6.2 million fewer deaths between 2000-2015
- overall spending increased by 260% between 2005 and 2014
- Foreign government contributions made up 78% of all funding in 2014
NGOs
- The WHO
- Mekong elimination programme
supports malaria elimination in Greater Mekong subregion
contains the spread of drug-resistant parasites
global malaria programme
- setting global policies on control and elimination
supporting other countries adapting and assisting with strategic plans, surveillance systems and responding to requests
- International malaria partnership
- over 500 partners
build public awareness
share technical info
mobilise funding
contributed to reducing deaths by half and saving 10.6 million lives
- UK’s malaria no more malaria
influence decisions made by governments, international bodies and corporations
collaborate with any partner on the front line and policies
raise awareness
- Gates Foundation
- pledged $3 billion USD in 2016
innovate
strengthen governmental cooperation
market incentives
data generation
- Tanzania
- all cases to be reported in 24 hours and treatment within 7 days
real-time electronic case reporting system
strengthened capacity for local health workers to survey vectors and larvae trapping
Tunisia- eliminated Malaria
Number of epidemics in 1900s
- severe epidemic in 1932
mortality rate exceeds 5 per 100
Control measure
active case detection
- establishment of quarantines in remote areas
modulable labs
Laval control
sanitation and drainage
- APi fell to 2 per 100 by 1938
- Completely eliminated in 1979
successful approaches
- vector control- IRS 3x a year
Lab diagnosis aimed at ensuring that the lab work was high quality
regular info and analysis sent to decision-makers
drastic reduction infection due to treatment with chloroquine and primaquine
Uganda- fighting Malaria
high temperatures and rainfall so high transmission rate
- average temp is about 23 degrees C
- rainfall range of 40mm-190mm in January/April
- Large areas of water like Lake Hyoga, Abert and Victoria
breeding grounds
people settle close by due to water source
doesn’t help reducing transmission ngl
- 3.6 million case and 6000 deaths in 2015
improving drainage and irrigation
insecticides
some resistant mossies tho
Medicines
expensive so difficult for low-income places
Asthma
Asthma is a chronic respitory illness, which varies in severity and frequency from person to person.
Where??
- Estimated 300 million people worldwide
Generally in HICS
USA, UK, Australia, Paraguay, Romania and Japan with 10% + children suffering with asthma
Canada and most of europe have 5-9.99%
China, Sweden, most of Asia and Southern Europe have 0-4.99%
Most of Africa is either 0-4.99% or have no data available
Estimated that some 334m people have asthma globally, with most prvelance among those aged 75-79 and 10-14
Triggers
Familly history
smoking
Caeserean birth
medication
viral respiratory infections
psychological stress
obesity
Chemical irritants
more triggers
exercise
indoor allergens
western lifestyle
allergens in the home
pollen
cold air
air pollution and high levels of ozone
Western lifestyle
A further increase in the prevelance of asth,a is anticpated particularly in Eastern European countries where a ‘western lifestyle’ has already been shown to increase the prevelance of childhood asthma to as much as 20%
There is a positive correlation between the increased afluence of a society and the incidence of asthma
Exposure to parasites and other pathogens has decreased in western homes with a subsequnet greater incidence of asthma
Idea that to fully develop our immune system we need exposure to a wide range of pathogens
Disease of Affluence?
Diseases of afluence are linked to the lifestyle resulting from econmic development and increased wealth. Three main groups of causal factors can be recognised
Lowlevels of physcial activity
Lifestyle
Calorie intake and diet
Asthma mortality rates for all ages (2001-2010)
High mortality rates in LICs and MICs
Low mortality for HICs
Qatar had the highest out of the HICs
USA, UK and Australia all have high occurances but not a lot of deaths
Could be more severe inother places
Could be due to development
Burdens of asthma
Asthmatics often in emergency care
can cause early permanent disability and premature death
Costly to an individual and government
- In 2007, the total incremental cost of asthma to society was $56 billion,
productivity losses due to morbidity accounting for $3.8 billion
productivity losses due to mortality accounting for $2.1 billion
not seen as much of a problem by people/governments
high number of school and work days lost
An asthmatic child with an exacerbation of his/her symptoms, usually, loses from 3 to 5 school days and at least one of the parents/caregivers loses the same working time
Worldwide, asthma accounts for about 1% of all DALYs lost
in Europe, asthma is responsible for approximately 0.4% of all deaths (43,000 persons) and 1% of the global disease burden, equivalent to 1,358,000 DALYs asthma-related death-rate
Management and Mitigation
ways to manage asthma
avoid triggering factors
take preventative medication such as inhalers corticosteroids that reduce the narrowing of airways
using a different set of prescription drugs to reduce the effects of the disease
Live well with asthma booklet
very existence tells us that the UK is focused on management
has research done to treat asthma
Need high dose steroids in the long term, especially with severe asthma
Certainty over stats?
wrong completion of death certificates
asthma not being considered as a cause of death
other illnesses involved that asthma just makes worse so is difficult to assess the role of asthma
China
China’s one child policy
Context of rintroduction
Political background
Mao promoted rapid population growth
43 million people starved.
Family planning effort ‘later, longer, fewer’ had stalled.
A new leader in 1976 introduced a raft of economic reforms
Socio-economic factors
Private enterprise and international trade were opening up.
Society was eager for improved health, welfare and educational opportunities
Environmental factors
A lot of china is not productive/fertile farmland so population pressure threatened food supplies
What did it involve?
The Communist government offered couples cash bonuses, better housing and free medical care if they promised to have a single child
In 1990 the government had to admit that their policy wasn't working due to rural communities having the one-child policy not being fully implemented
In the early 1990s, the government responded with a crackdown on ‘hidden’ pregnancies and births, accompanied by a nationwide campaign of forced abortions and sterilisations
Punishments if people have a second child include:
Punitive fines worth several years of wages
blocked promotions at work
20% pay cut
loss of benefits
eviction from a subsidised apartment
In the countryside, you could have a second child if your first one was a girl
Médaille de la Famille française -
Three classes of medal exist: bronze for those raising four or five children, silver for parents of six or seven children, and gold for those with eight or more children.
Unintended consequences
The second generation of single children will have no siblings or extended family.
By 2030 married couples could find themselves responsible for as many as 12 elderly people
The ‘demographic crunch’
The one-child policy has coincided exactly with the country's economic rise as the worlds leading trading nation
cheap, productive labour provided by an expanding working-age population
This began to shrink in 2012 and will continue to do so as the country is more reliant on the ‘one-child population’.
Human rights abuses
336 million abortions and 196 million sterilisations were performed, many against the will of the women
2007 in Bobai County
17,000 women were subjected to sterilisations or abortions and fines totalling £800,000 were levied
The homes of those who didn't pay their fines were ransacked
Riots involving thousands broke out - the worst example of public disorder since the 1989 demonstrations in Beijing’s Tiananmen Square
Surrogate babies
Surrogacy is illegal in china however a black market operates to give surrogate mothers to older, wealthy women
£50,000 is paid to agencies to recruit surrogates - usually students
the surrogates earn around £20,000 which is 80 times the graduate salary in Beijing
Unlicensed IVF facilities make it convenient to link the process to male sex selection
The Gays :rainbow-flag:
homosexuality - illegal until 1997 and classified as a mental illness until 2001
a lot of prejudice still exists but there is legal protection against homophobic discrimination
80% of gay and lesbian people get married mostly to “straight” partners - reflecting traditional pressure exerted by parents
12 million gay men are married to heterosexual women
90% of respondents in a recent study had no objection to working with gay colleagues (more than in the USA) and 30% would back same-sex marriage
Prostitution
Six million women have worked in China’s sex industry in recent years
hazards of abusive clients, HIV infection and police harassment or crackdowns
Prostitution is criminalised
Ministry of Public Security holds 20-30,000 women in detention each year
When released most go to ‘hair salons’ where they can earn £700 a month, three times the average income of an unskilled labourer
Implications for the country
Missing women :!?:
There are unregistered births creating a pool of people who do not officially exist
This could be bad in the future as they cannot find work, get any state benefits or cannot get married/have children without the proper documentation
must be a bloody nightmare to get a National Insurance Number eh?
Ageing Population :older_man:
The population is going to get old before it gets rich
Currently, about 30% of China's population is over the age of 50. The total population of the country is around 1.36 billion.
between 2002 and 2011 life expectancy increased from 715 to 74 years
the total number of 20-24 year-olds will fall by nearly half over the next decade; from 125 mil to 68 mil
there are fewer working-age people to support the elderly - in 2000 there were 6 workers per retiree, but by 2030 it will be barely 2
A society of ‘Little emperors’? :baby:
In the early 1990s, as the first single children were becoming teenagers, Chinese media began to highlight the problem of parents who spoilt their only child, causing problems of obesity, selfishness and bad behaviour
Rural-to-urban migration
Single children especially struggle to meet their filial duties: they may live far away from their parents or lack time due to economic changes
The average urban income is £2,750, while rural earnings are only one-third of that
‘Floating population of over 200 million migrants in Chinese cities, whom urban residents view with suspicion
A ‘nonmingong’ works punishing hours, and spends years away from home but are regarded as dirty and responsible for undercutting wages and overwhelming services
The Hukou System 1958 categories people according to their place of origin rather than where they live
This means migrant workers are classified as rural residents who have no access to education or medical services in the city
Children of migrants inherit their parent's hukou registration
19 million migrant children live in Chinese cities but three times as many are left in the countryside
Rural migrants make up one-third of Beijing’s population of 19 million
Secure ‘walled villages’ segregate migrate workers from Beijing residents - plans to house 4 million people
Urbanisation
Each year 2.5 to 3 million farmers lose land due to urban sprawl
This gives rise to tens of thousands of conflicts every year as evicted farmers protest river the loss of their land, businesses and livelihoods
This rapid urban growth, however, has been the most managed in human history. The state is involved in every aspect.
In 2011 the census stated that the previous year, half the country's population (1.34 billion) were classified as urban
By 2025 the urban population may be swelled by a further 350 million migrants from the country
There will be 221 cities with more than a million people
Why the policy was ended
Repealed in 2015
1.6 total fertility rate (down from 6.1)
the decision to allow families to have two children was designed “to improve the balanced development of population” and deal with an ageing population
Wasn't working as well as they hoped because the policy hadn't really been applied effectively.
Some farmers, especially those near big cities, had become very rich and were prepared to pay fines to have larger families
(this was in 1990 and because of this, this wasn't really one of the reasons why they became a lot stricter with abortions and sterilisations)
A single child must care for one set of parents and 4 grandparents-
They sell more old people nappies than young ones
By 2030, 1/4 of Chinese men will never get married
Rural workers have to move to cities to find jobs
Countries have initiatives
Sweden has 480 days of paid maternity leave.
This however stops employers from employing young women because they are more likely to have to do this
Why china and India face a marriage crisis
Millions of women have gone missing due to the aborting of female foetuses and choosing boy ones
There are 50 million surplus husbands due to gender imbalance
By 2060 there could be more than 160 Chinese and Indian men for every 100 women
Large numbers of young and single men are associated with crime and violence
Agriculture case studies
Monsoons and India
Monsoon is the seasonal reversal of wind direction leading to very heavy rains as high areas of low pressure suddenly change from a dry to a wet season
“A monsoon is a seasonal change in the direction of the prevailing, or strongest, winds of a region. Monsoons cause wet and dry seasons throughout much of the tropics.”
60% live in monsoon climate
90% of yearly rainfall during summer monsoon
rains due to dense clouds having to rise above Himalayas
sun loses strength in September and dry season begin again
monsoons extra info
seasonal reverse of wind direction
land heats up quicker than water
as sun gets stronger the heat builds and temp soars to high 40s in may whilst sea stays 20 degree cooler
warm air is less dense so when heat rises the air does too
huge area of low pressure creates vacuum effect that draws in moisture that suddenly changes from a dry to wet season
reaches north by like July
heaviest in north eastern parts
doesn’t go past Himalayas
flooding becomes big issue
weather report
“According to the forecast, the seasonal rainfall is likely to be 96% of the Long Period Average, with a model error of plus or minus five per cent.
The south-west monsoon, which makes its onset over the country in June, irrigates over half of India’s cropland and sustains the livelihood of over 58% of its population that is dependent on agriculture.
The monsoon forecast is crucial, as it directly influences agricultural production and has a spiraling impact on India's economy.”
May- 1st week of June it begins
winds vary across seasons and years
issue is Monsoon variability
heavily depends on monsoon rains
70% depends on farming
58% of employment is agriculture
80% of GDP
4 month long june-sept
75% of annual rainfall
good rains= good crops
major population of crops is completed dependent on rains
farm output goes up and leads to stronger economic outlook
monsoons friendly crops with high water requirement can easily be cultivated in monsoon areas
wheat and barley grown in dry seasons
in drought prices soar significantly
cost of living increase
poor monsoon = less crops so India may need to import
Failure of monsoon has huge impact
rain critical to 60% of crop output
many as a dozen sectors rely directly/indirectly on monsoons