Approaches

behaviourist approach

biological approach

social learning theory

cognitive approach

psychodynamic approach

humanistic approach

Pavlov's research

Skinners research

classical conditioning

  • learning through association
  • the use of dogs to be conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell if it was presented at the same time as they were given food

before conditioning:
food = unconditioned stimulus --> salivation = unconditioned response
before conditioning:
bell = neutral stimulus --> no salivation = unconditioned response
during conditioning:
bell + food = unconditioned + neutral stimulus --> salivation = unconditioned response
after conditioning:
bell = conditioned stimulus --> salivation = conditioned response

operant conditioning

  • learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on their environment
    Positive reinforcement = receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
    Negative reinforcement = occurs when a person/animal avoids something unpleasant
    Punishment = an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
  • conducted research on rats - every time the rat activated the lever in the box they would be rewarded with a food pellet
  • rat would continue to perform this way
  • different lever would be activated by the rat with an electric shock
  • rat would start to avoid this unpleasant stimulus as learned that it produced an unpleasant response

vicarious reinforcement

  • occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
  • the person may imitate this behaviour based on if what they have seen has been rewarded or punished

4 mediational processes

Attention

Retention

Motor reproduction

Motivation

the extent to which we notice certain behaviours

how well the behaviour is remembered

the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour

the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished

Identification

  • people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people who they see as role models
  • role model = someone who possesses similar characteristics to the observer or have a higher status
  • we have internal mental processes that should be scientifically studied

Theoretical and computer models

information processing approach = suggests that information flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval

  • based on the way computers function
  • to see if a computer model produces similar output as humans

Schema

  • a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
  • developed from experiences
  • enable us to process lots of information quickly and is useful as a mental short cut

example = we have a schema for a chair, it has legs and we can sit on it

  • babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
  • our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated as we get older and we develop mental representations of everything

emergence of cognitive neuroscience

  • the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes

Broca's area = damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production

  • over the years there has been advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI's and PET scans
  • scanning techniques have also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders such as OCD

Genetic basis

Twin studies = used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates

  • Monozygotic (identical) twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than dizygotic (non-identical) twins
  • MZ twins share 100% of each others gene, whereas DZ twins only share 50%

genotype

set of genes that a person possesses, actual genetic makeup

phenotype

the characteristics of a person determined by both genes and the environment

  • physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
  • identical twins will have the same genes but their phenotype can be different

Evolution

theory of natural selection = any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival will continue in future generations

  • farmers will use this when they are deciding what animals to use for breeding
  • they select the ones with desirable characteristics

role of the unconscious

  • the part of the mind that we are unaware of but continues to direct a lot of out behaviour
    • contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed
  • they can be accessed through dreams and the slip of the tongue

structure of personality

ID: unconscious part of our mind where the selfish aggressive instincts are made

  • Freud says that the id is present at birth but throughout life its selfish

EGO: the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego

  • develops around the age of 2 and manages the defence mechanisms

SUPEREGO: the moralistic part of our personality represents the ideal self

  • formed at the end of the phallic stage at the age of 5
  • it internalises our sense of what is right and wrong

psychosexual stages

Oral stage (0-1 years) = focuses of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is the desired
object
consequence of unresolved conflict = smoking, biting nails, sarcastic

Anal stage (1-3 years) = focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure withholding and expelling faeces
consequence of unresolved conflict = perfectionist, messy, thoughtless

Phallic stage (3-5 years) = focus of pleasure is the genital area
consequence of unresolved conflict = reckless, possibly homosexual

Latency = earlier conflicts are repressed

Genital = sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
consequence of unresolved conflict = difficulty forming heterosexual relationships

Free will

  • people make their own choices and aren't determined by biological or external forces
  • we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development

self - actualisation

  • realising what you are capable of doing and everyone has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential
  • Maslow's hierarchy of needs
  • personal growth is an essential part of what humans need and develop a person to become fulfilled

Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
Top - self actualisation

  • self esteem
  • love and belongingness
  • safety and security
    Bottom - physiological needs

the self, congruence and conditions of worth

  • personal growth can be achieved by an individuals concept of self to be equivalent to congruence with their ideal self
    Congruence = when the self concept and then idea self are seen to match

Conditions of worth = when a parent places limitations or boundaries on their love of their children
example = I will only love you if you study medicine