Approaches
behaviourist approach
biological approach
social learning theory
cognitive approach
psychodynamic approach
humanistic approach
Pavlov's research
Skinners research
classical conditioning
- learning through association
- the use of dogs to be conditioned to salivate to the sound of the bell if it was presented at the same time as they were given food
before conditioning:
food = unconditioned stimulus --> salivation = unconditioned response
before conditioning:
bell = neutral stimulus --> no salivation = unconditioned response
during conditioning:
bell + food = unconditioned + neutral stimulus --> salivation = unconditioned response
after conditioning:
bell = conditioned stimulus --> salivation = conditioned response
operant conditioning
- learning is an active process where humans and animals operate on their environment
Positive reinforcement = receiving a reward when a certain behaviour is performed
Negative reinforcement = occurs when a person/animal avoids something unpleasant
Punishment = an unpleasant consequence of behaviour
- conducted research on rats - every time the rat activated the lever in the box they would be rewarded with a food pellet
- rat would continue to perform this way
- different lever would be activated by the rat with an electric shock
- rat would start to avoid this unpleasant stimulus as learned that it produced an unpleasant response
vicarious reinforcement
- occurs through observing someone else being reinforced for a behaviour
- the person may imitate this behaviour based on if what they have seen has been rewarded or punished
4 mediational processes
Attention
Retention
Motor reproduction
Motivation
the extent to which we notice certain behaviours
how well the behaviour is remembered
the ability of the observer to perform the behaviour
the will to perform the behaviour, which is often determined by whether the behaviour was rewarded or punished
Identification
- people are more likely to imitate the behaviour of people who they see as role models
- role model = someone who possesses similar characteristics to the observer or have a higher status
- we have internal mental processes that should be scientifically studied
Theoretical and computer models
information processing approach = suggests that information flows through cognitive system in a sequence of stages that include input, storage and retrieval
- based on the way computers function
- to see if a computer model produces similar output as humans
Schema
- a mental framework of beliefs and expectations that influence cognitive processing
- developed from experiences
- enable us to process lots of information quickly and is useful as a mental short cut
example = we have a schema for a chair, it has legs and we can sit on it
- babies are born with a simple motor schema for innate behaviours such as sucking and grasping
- our schemas become more detailed and sophisticated as we get older and we develop mental representations of everything
emergence of cognitive neuroscience
- the scientific study of the influence of brain structures on mental processes
Broca's area = damage to an area of the frontal lobe could permanently impair speech production
- over the years there has been advances in brain imaging techniques such as fMRI's and PET scans
- scanning techniques have also been useful in establishing the neurological basis of some mental disorders such as OCD
Genetic basis
Twin studies = used to determine the likelihood that certain traits have a genetic basis by comparing concordance rates
- Monozygotic (identical) twins are found to have a higher concordance rate than dizygotic (non-identical) twins
- MZ twins share 100% of each others gene, whereas DZ twins only share 50%
genotype
set of genes that a person possesses, actual genetic makeup
phenotype
the characteristics of a person determined by both genes and the environment
- physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics
- identical twins will have the same genes but their phenotype can be different
Evolution
theory of natural selection = any genetically determined behaviour that enhances an individuals survival will continue in future generations
- farmers will use this when they are deciding what animals to use for breeding
- they select the ones with desirable characteristics
role of the unconscious
- the part of the mind that we are unaware of but continues to direct a lot of out behaviour
- contains threatening and disturbing memories that have been repressed
- they can be accessed through dreams and the slip of the tongue
structure of personality
ID: unconscious part of our mind where the selfish aggressive instincts are made
- Freud says that the id is present at birth but throughout life its selfish
EGO: the reality check that balances the conflicting demands of the id and the superego
- develops around the age of 2 and manages the defence mechanisms
SUPEREGO: the moralistic part of our personality represents the ideal self
- formed at the end of the phallic stage at the age of 5
- it internalises our sense of what is right and wrong
psychosexual stages
Oral stage (0-1 years) = focuses of pleasure is the mouth, mothers breast is the desired
object
consequence of unresolved conflict = smoking, biting nails, sarcastic
Anal stage (1-3 years) = focus of pleasure is the anus, child gains pleasure withholding and expelling faeces
consequence of unresolved conflict = perfectionist, messy, thoughtless
Phallic stage (3-5 years) = focus of pleasure is the genital area
consequence of unresolved conflict = reckless, possibly homosexual
Latency = earlier conflicts are repressed
Genital = sexual desires become conscious alongside the onset of puberty
consequence of unresolved conflict = difficulty forming heterosexual relationships
Free will
- people make their own choices and aren't determined by biological or external forces
- we are active agents who have the ability to determine our own development
self - actualisation
- realising what you are capable of doing and everyone has an innate tendency to achieve their full potential
- Maslow's hierarchy of needs
- personal growth is an essential part of what humans need and develop a person to become fulfilled
Maslow's hierarchy of needs:
Top - self actualisation
- self esteem
- love and belongingness
- safety and security
Bottom - physiological needs
the self, congruence and conditions of worth
- personal growth can be achieved by an individuals concept of self to be equivalent to congruence with their ideal self
Congruence = when the self concept and then idea self are seen to match
Conditions of worth = when a parent places limitations or boundaries on their love of their children
example = I will only love you if you study medicine