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Water & Carbon Cycles - Coggle Diagram

- - - - solid outer crust & upper mantle, stored within rock as groundwater (1.7%)
    - - water on surface of planet, includes oceans, seas, rivers, streams, lakes & ponds (96.5%)
      - limited change in vol. over short term
    - - frozen areas on planet, includes glaciers, ice sheets as well as frozen section of oceans (1.7%)
      - can increase in colder climatic conditions
    - - layer of gases surrounding planet, water stored as vapour in clouds and other layers (0.001%)
  - - - changes have minimal impact on storage capacity, long term climatic change events e.g. ice ages can lower storage capacity significantly
    - - annual changes have little impact on storage capacity (increases during ice ages & decreases during interglacial periods)
  - - - high levels occur in tropical & desert areas (regional scale changes)
      - increased global changes likely to occur due to climate change and increased atmospheric temp
        
        level of evaporation on global scale oceans & sea level minimal
      - within drainage basin, evaporation has large regional scale impact
        
        lakes/rivers in area with high max summer temp = high levels of evaporation & hydrosphere storage will decrease significantly
    - - occurs as temp falls & humidity increases
      - can be seen as mist, fogs & clouds, occurs on global scale but could alter as climate change changes global atmospheric temp
    - - noticed at the altitude where air temps fall to where condensation occurs (dew point) or where humidity content rises to where water vapour condenses
      - as molecules grow, clouds form with water particles being kept aloft by rising air currents
    - - if droplets fall velocity is greater than clouds updraft velocity, precipitation occurs (if droplet falls faster than the cloud moves)
  - - - Basin size = influences lag time (larger basin = larger lag time) water takes long time to travel through tributaries to channel
      - Basin Shape = Circular = points on water shed are equidistant from channel & shorter lag time & higher peak discharge
      - Elevation & slope = steep = gravity assists water to move to river channel = small lag times & high peak discharges
      - Rock type = Permeable (lack of surface drainage & high infiltration) Impermeable ( lack or percolation, high rates overland flow & surface runoff)
      - Soil type = sandy soils (high infiltration due to big air spaces) clay soils (small air spaces & little throughflow)
      - Drainage density = total length of streams in basin divided by area of basin (basins with impermeable rock = high drainage density due to lack of percolation & infiltration)
    - - control amount of discharge in drainage basin
      - Rainfall type = long periods rainfall = soil capacity reached (high rates of runoff), snow can act as store (intercepts water) & transfer when melted, vegetation cover impacts amount of rainfall reaching basin and can reduce discharge
      - Rainfall intensity = heavy rainfall exceeds infiltration capacity, surface runoff & increase discharge
      - Antecedent conditions = weather conditions in period before storm event, several weeks rainfall means saturation capacity reached quickly after storm event, leads to rise in water table level, increasing likelihood of saturation capacity being reached
      - Rates of evapotranspiration = rates not constant throughout year in mid-latitude areas (UK) summer (increased rates and reduced discharge) winter (reduced rates & less interception due to less plant growth)
    - - Urbanisation = reduces infiltration due to impermeable surfaces, drains transport water quickly to channel, lag time reduces & discharges increased. flashy hydrography & high flood risk
      - Deforestation = reduces interception, evapotranspiration & protective canopy layer, increase infiltration & saturation capacity reached quickly, rain travels by overland flow & high soil erosion without roots
      - Afforestation = soft flood engineering, increase interception & evapotranspiration reduces discharge in drainage basin but takes time to grow
      - Water extraction = industrial/domestic use reduces amount of discharge in basin
    - - location = Shropshire Hills, Shropshire, England
      - key facts
        
        2.8km long stream
        
        source = natural spring in hills, elevation 460m
        
        mouth= feeds into river Severn at Shrewsbury
        
        small catchment area & low drainage density
      - topography - very hilly, lots of valleys, water reaches stream quickly
      - geology - permeable rock (high capacity), hills act as aquifers water can always be fed to river
      - land use
        
        95% agriculture, large amount pastoral sheep grazing. woodland cleared to make way for sheep
        
        current debate whether area should be region into woodland via afforestation
        
        5% tourism, natural trust took over 54 yrs ago, development to attract tourism
        
        currently maintaining paths & flood defences to preserve land
      - hydrograph
        
        responds quickly to rainfall events - short lag time
        
        rapid infiltration - soil becomes saturated quickly
        
        large amount antecedent rainfall
      - flooding history
        
        1970s = large amounts flooding, caused debris in streams (blockages), water can't flow easily and river diverts it's course
        
        flood defences first added in 1930 - dams, updated by national trust in the 1950s
        
        impacts of 2017 flooding
        
        precipitation increased = erosion increased (concerned national trust)
        
        heavy downpour October 2017
        
        100s tonnes of earth picked up & deposited along valley
        
        large section of stream next to car park washed way, potential threat to roads & trees
        
        work put n place to stabilise bank, reroute stream & replant trees
      - human impacts
        
        farming
        
        woodland deforested in victorian era - farm sheep, no flood defneces, more risk, less transpiration & uptake of water from trees, land saturated
        
        tourism
        
        erosion of land - areas zoned off & protected
        
        flood defences
        
        channelisation, stone traps & dams prevent flooding
      - hard engineering
        
        stone trap - aims to catch & collect debris (increases efficiency of stream) concrete base reduces hydraulic action/abrasion, cleared every 18 months
        
        dams - built to control level of stream less effective than traps
        
        culvert - divert water around Church Stretton
      - soft engineering
        
        flood warnings - environmental agency measures discharge to warn flood risks
        
        tree planting - increase interception & slow surface runoff/overland flow
      - evaluation of strategies
        
        stone traps = most effective (due to cost, attractiveness & upkeep)
        
        dams = least effective
  - - - Precipitation = run-off + evapotranspiration (+/- change in storage)
  - - - Shape = circular shape = rapid drainage
      - Topography & relief = steeper basin = quicker drainage, indented landscapes will collect water, reducing water reaching channel
      - Heavy storms = runoff increases after soil field capacity is met, water reaches channel quicker
      - Lengthy rainfall = ground becomes saturated & runoff increases, water reaches channel more quickly
      - Snowfall = until snow melts, water held in storage but when melted can cause flooding
      - Vegetation = reduces discharge as it intercepts precipitation, roots also take up water, has more impact in summer
      - Rock type = impermeable rock leads to greater runoff and rapid increase in discharge than permeable rocks
  - - - storm events = increase in channel flow & surface runoff, depending on basin flooding can occur
      - seasonal changes = seasons with high precipitation lead to more runoff & channel flow, drier seasons lead to reduced discharge & no runoff. in mountainous regions, increased channel flow & runoff occurs due to ice melt
      - ecosystem changes = plant successions change dominant type of vegetation, if it dies off theres less absorption by roots and less transpiration (reducing precipitation)
    - - climate change = increasing global temp leads to reduction in mountain glaciers, dependency on water will become an issue as input declines. potential drought consequences
      - farming practices = hotter climates, faming impacts water cycle. irrigation lowers channel levels & groundwater levels if wells are the source
      - deforestation = vegetation is an important store & micro-transfer capacity is lost. soil moisture reduces, transpiration declines & microclimates give less precipitation (local river systems dry up)
      - land use change = change from natural landscape->urbanised increases impermeable surfaces, increased runoff & reduces infiltration. cities create drainage systems to take water away but leads to flooding as river levels receive water too quickly
      - water abstraction = global pop growth leads to increase water demand. when precipitation is low, alt supply is groundwater in aquifers. excessive abstraction is unsustainable & stores are depleted. river water can also be used
- - - - living things -> atmosphere
      - CO2 released by respiration & CH4 released by decomposition
      - directly impacted by humans (land use change & industrial processes)
      - fast carbon cycle
    - - CO2 dissolved in water & C in marine organisms
      - input to ocean store = absorption by gas exchange with atmosphere as well as by acid rain
      - carbon stored in sink on floor on shallow oceans, gather sediment from decaying marine organism remains & excrement of plankton
    - - cycling between surface bedrock & atmospheric or ocean stores
      - slow carbon cycle
      - weathering of rocks by acid rain leads to terrestrial-ocean carbon transfer
      - carbon in sedimentary rock on ocean floor subjected into mantle by destructive plate margins - then released to atmosphere by volcanic activity
  - - - photosynthesis = absorption of CO2 from atmosphere & oceans to produce organic carbon structures
      - respiration = release of CO2 -> atmosphere, soil & ocean by animal as they exhale
      - digestion = release of carbon by animals after feeding on carbon rich material
      - decomposition = breakdown of animals/plants by bacteria & release carbon to atmosphere, soil & ocean floor. O2 present (CO2 released) O2 absent (CH4 released)
      - combustion = natural fire release carbon vegetation -> atmosphere
      - ocean-atmosphere exchange (non-organic)
  - - - natural factors = periods of increased volcanicity
      - human factors = burning fossil fuels, wildfires, meat-based diet (cattle), climate change melting tundra
    - - natural factors = glacial periods (less vegetation), interglacial periods (warmer oceans absorb less CO2), winter n.hemisphere
      - human factors = clearing vegetation for human use, climate change (warmer oceans)
    - - natural factors = longterm reduction volcanic activity
      - human factors = artificial carbon sequestration
    - - natural factors = glacial periods(cooler oceans absorb CO2), interglacial periods(more vegetation), summers in n.hemisphere(increased biomass)
      - human factors = reforestation & afforestation
  - - - dominated by photosynthesis
      - carbon stored in biomass (forests)
      - carbon transferred to soil via leaf litter, roots & plant debris via decomposition
        
        bacterial action releases CO2 -> atmosphere
      - carbon cycled rapidly through organic systems
      - considerable impacts from human activity, clearing vegetation is a major change to biomass & impacts carbon exchange between atmosphere & soil, burning release carbon to air rapidly
    - - carbon stored as dissolved CO2 in solution & tissues of marine organisms
      - inputs = atmosphere exchange with ocean surfaces, bicarbonate ions brought by rivers due to weathering, small input from volcanoes
      - phytoplankton in surface water absorb CO2
      - carbon pump operates in oceans transfer carbon upper layers -> sea bed
      - warmer oceans less able to absorb CO2 from atmosphere & reduces phytoplankton activity
    - - in form of CO2 or CH4 (greenhouse gases)
      - CO2 combines with water molecules in clouds to form carbonic acid (acid rain) leads to terrestrial weathering & ocean acidification
      - outputs = absorption by surface vegetation & oceans in atmosphere-ocean gas exchange
      - human impacts = increasing atmospheric CO2 via burning fossil fuels
  - - - increasing atmospheric CO2
        
        rising global temps
        
        melting tundra permafrost
        
        release of stored cryosphere carbon
        
        increasing atmospheric CO2
        
        increased melting polar sea ice
        
        reduced polar albedo, increased solar absorption
        
        rising global temps
  - - - burning them has taken carbon out of slow carbon cycle store and created a huge input for the fast carbon cycle
    - - global intervention - Paris Climate Deal (COP21)
        
        limit global temp to 2C above pre industrial levels
        
        support for developing countries
        
        public interaction & awareness schemes
        
        meet every 5 yrs to review goals
      - regional intervention - EU 20-20-20
        
        20% reduction GHG emission & commitment to 20% of energy coming from renewable sources & 20% increase in energy efficiency by 2020
        
        EU wants to increase emissions reduction -> 30%
      - national intervention - Climate Change Act 2008 (UK)
        
        legally binding target to reduce GHG emissions by 80% of 1990 levels by 2050
        
        national carbon budgets & Independent Committee on Climate Change
      - local scale intervention
        
        improve home insulation, recycling, using energy more wisely (smart meters, public transport)
- - - - precipitation falls
      - 75% intercepted by trees and 35% riches ground via stem flow& infiltrates soil, another 35% used by plants and returns to atmosphere via transpiration
      - 25% evaporates -> atmosphere almost immediately
    - - precipitation falls
      - most reaches ground immediately - little vegetation to intercept rainfall = high runoff & high flood risk
      - less evapotranspiration (atmosphere less humid & rainfall decreases)
    - - trees suited to humid/warm conditions - promotes photosynthesis
      - absorb O2 from atmosphere & acting as carbon sink
      - decomposition & respiration releases CO2 -> atmosphere & soil
    - - lack of trees = reduced photosynthesis
      - fires to clear land = CO2 -> atmosphere (forests become sources instead of sinks)
      - lack of life until new plants grow
      - low decomposition rates
  - - - largest tropical rainforest & covers 40% SA landmass
      - hot & wet climate with dense vegetation
      - diverse biosphere
    - - lots of evaporation over Atlantic Ocean (blown towards Amazon) contributing to very high rainfall
      - warm temp = high evaporation = high precipitation
      - dense canopy, high interception & less water flows to rivers slowly
      - populated by species adapted to high humidity & frequent rainfall
    - - lots of carbon stored in vegetation & soil (makes carbon sink)
      - increasing conc CO2 in atmosphere = increased productivity, vegetation can access more CO2 for photosynthesis, increasing biomass
        
        due to this, amount of CO2 sequestered increased, making it important carbon store
      - although trees are growing more quickly, they're dying younger, may not be able to rely on the forest to be an effective carbon sink in the future
    - - in deforested area, no canopy to intercept rain, soil saturates quickly & runoff increases (flooding)
      - reduces evapotranspiration, less water vapour reaches atmosphere, fear clouds form = less rainfall (drought)
    - - without roots to hold top layer together, heavy rain washes away nutrient rich top layer. carbon in soil -> hydrosphere
      - less leaf litter, humus not formed, soil can't support new growth, limits carbon stored
      - trees remove CO2 from atmosphere & store it, fewer trees = more atmospheric CO2 (enhances global warming & greenhouse effect)
    - - temp is increasing & rainfall decreasing -> drought (2005 & 2010)
      - organisms adapted to tropical conditions may die in dry weather -> leads to extinction & forest fires (release lots of CO2 and cause positive feedback)
      - 4C rise could kill 85% of the Amazon (lots of carbon released via dead material & none taken in via photosynthesis)
    - - only oldest trees felled, less damaging, keeps forest structure & allows it to regenerate
    - - new trees planted to replace ones cut down, important to use same type of trees to maintain original variety in cycles
    - - protect rainforest
      - unsustainable use of wood banned
      - excessive logging banned
      - land use controlled
    - - national parks & nature reserves protect rainforest
      - Central Amazon Conservation Complex protect biodiversity in 49000km while allowing locals to use it sustainably
      - damaging activity monitored & prevented