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SEMANTICS - Coggle Diagram
SEMANTICS
SENSE RELATION
the sense of an expression contracts with the senses of other expressions in the language
the relationships btw the words
VD: small - big
1. Hyponymy (Quan hệ bao chứa)
the relationship btw each of the hyponyms and its superordinate
2. Synonymy
different sound + written
same meaning
VD: hide - conceal ; kind - type
Perfect (True) synonymy
same denotative meaning
same connotative meaning
--> không có từ nào thỏa đk cả
Partial Synonymy
where a polysemous word shares
one of it meanings with another word
VD: You have my deep sympathy.
You have my profound sympathy.
3. Antonymy
Differences: sound form + written
Opposite meaning
Type 1: Binary antonymy
Mutual exclusive
VD:
dead - alive
Cách thử: cho phủ định một bên
dead = not alive --> đúng --> binary
Type 2: Gradable antonymy
VD:
hot - cold
cách thử: trả lời câu hỏi
how
để so sánh
how hot? how cold?
--> hot - warm - cool - cold
Type 3: Relational antonymy / Converse antonymy
Symmetry in their meaning
vd:
Employee - Employer
cách thử:
If .... then .....
If Tom is Susan's employer, then Susan is Tom's employee.
4. Multiple incompatibility
(quan hệ anh chị em)
Vd:
rose - daisy
- sunflower - daffodil
5. Homonymy
same: sound + written
different meaning
VD:
bank - bank
bank: a financial institution
bank: the shre of a river
7. Homography
same written
different: meanings + sound
VD: lead - lead
lead /li:d/: (v) to control a group of people, a country, or a situation
lead /led/ (n): a chemical element
8. Polysemy
closely related meanings of a single word
vd:
chip - chip
Chip: a very
thin, often round piece
of fried potato, sometimes with a flavour added, sold especially in plastic bags
Chip: a very
small piece
of semiconductor, especially in a computer,
6. Homophony
same sound
different: meanings + written
Vd: Hour - our
FIGURATIVE MEANING
FIGURES OF SPEECH
a word / phrase which is used for special effect & which does not have its usual or literal meaning
Metonymy + Synedoche
4. Metonymy (Phép hoán dụ)
Substitution of the name of one thing for that of another to which it is related/ with which is associated
VD: “Áo nâu cùng với áo xanh,
Nông thôn cùng với thị thành đứng lên”
VD: He is the best
pen
of the month.
(He is the best
writer
of the month.)
instrument
VD: The
kettle
is boiling.
(The
water
is boiling.)
container
VD: I have never read
Shakepear
.
(I have never read
Shakepear's poem
.)
proper name
5. Synecdoche (Phép ẩn dụ)
/si´nekdəki/
Lấy cái bộ phận chỉ cái toàn thể
a special kind of metonymy
VD: They organized a fleet of fitty
sails
.
(They organized a fleet of fifty
ships
.)
Còn lại
6. Hyperbole / Overstatement (Phép nói quá)
the use of exaggerated statement
--> made for special effect
VD: I have invited millions of people to the party.
(I have invited many people to the party.)
VD: She sheds floods of tears whenever she is upset.
(She cries fiercely whenever she is upset.)
VD: I haven't seen you for ages.
(I haven't seen you for 3 years.)
7. Litotes / Meiosis (Phép nói giảm, nói tránh)
the use of deliberately gentler, mindler, or weaker statement
--> express something in a different way
VD: I don't think I would agree with you.
(I disagree with you.)
VD: I am afraid that no passenger is allowed to smoke in here.
(You are not allowed to smoke in here.)
VD: It's not bad.
(It's fine.)
VD: It wasn't easy.
(It was difficult.)
8. Irony (Phép châm biếm)
the direct opposite of one's thoughts
--> emphatic / amusing / sarcastic, ...
VD: What a
lovely
day it was! Everything I had went wrong.
(What a
horrible
day it was! Everything I had went wrong.)
9. Euphemism (Cách nói văn vẻ)
the use of
pleasant
,
mild
,
indirect
words / phrases in place of more accurate and direct ones
VD: He is a sanitation engineer.
(He is a garbage man.)
10. Onomatopoeia (Sử dụng từ tượng thanh)
/ˌonəˌmætəˈpiːə/
the imitation of natural sounds
VD: We could hear the enemy guns booming away in the distance.
(We could hear the enemy guns exploding away in the distance.)
VD: He felt a tap on his shoulder.
(He felt a touch on his shoulder.)
Simile + Metaphor + Personification
2. Metaphor (so sánh gián tiếp)
-
indirect comparison
no function words
VD: She has a heart of stone.
--> She is piteless/unfeeling person.
VD: His words stabbed at her heart.
--> His words caused great pain / unhappy to her.
or: His words hurted her feelings
VD: Tom is a pig.
--> Tom is greedy / short / fat / slow / lazy / not intelligent.
3. Personification (phép nhân hóa)
a special kind of metaphor
some human characteristic is attributed to an inanimate object / abstract notion
VD: It was a pitiless cold. (It was extremely cold.)
1. Simile: (so sánh trực tiếp)
direct comparison
of one thing with another
use function words:
like
/
as
VD: My hands are
as
cold
as
ice
--> Literal meaning: My hands are very cold.
VD: Alice came in gently,
like
a May breeze.
--> Literal meaning: Alice is young, fresh, sweet, and warm
PRIMARY MEANING = DENOTATIVE MEANING
(CONTEXT-FREE)
The 1st meaning / usage that the word will suggest to most people when it is said in isolation
VD: wing (n): either of the pair of feathered limbs that a bird uses to fly
SECONDARY MEANING
CONTEXT-BOUND
the meaning besides its primary meaning
they are said to be not central but peripheral
VD: He usually plays on the wing.
(He usually plays on a side part of the playing area in football.)
LITERAL MEANING
(SECONDARY MEANING)
the basic or unusual meaning of a word
VD: the left wing of his car was damaged in the collision
NON-LITERAL MEANING = FIGURATIVE MEANING
meaning different from its usual literal meaning and which creates vivid mental images to readers / listeners
VD: We hope college life will help him to spread his wings a bit.
(spread his wing: phát huy)
VD: Having a new baby to look after has clipped her wings a bit
SEMANTIC PROPERTIES
Definition
Semantic is the smallest units of meaning in a word
VD:
father
: [+human], [+male], [+mature], [parental], [+paternal]
Nghĩa cơ bản đưa ra trước, nghĩa phân biệt đưa ra sau
VD:
hen
: [+animate], [+bird], [+fowl], [+fully grown], [+female]
Characteristics
- Different words may share the same semantic property
VD: doctor, engineer, teacher, physicist, chemist, tailor, hairdresser.... [+professional]
The same semantic property can occur in word of different parts of speech
(Words of different parts of speech (N, ADJ, V,..) may share the same semantic property)
VD: mother (N) ; breast-feed (V), pregnant (ADJ) share the semantic property [+female]
Binary oppositions
VD [+human] = [-inhuman]
Denotation vs. Connotation
Connotation
The
additional meaning
that the word has beyond its denotative meaning
Show people's
emotions
and/or ó towards what the word refers to
may probably depend on such factors as:
culture
family and/or educational background
social and/or political class
speech community and/or ethic group
*có những từ không có positive meaning
VD: fox: [+cunning], [deceiful]
VD:
child
Positively: [+affectionate], [+innocent]
Negatively: [+noisy], [+naughty], [+irritating]
VD:
woman
positively: [+devoted}, [patient]
negatively: [+talkative], [+wicked]
Denotation
The core, central or referential meaning of the word
found in a dictionary.
A content word:
described in terms of a set of semantic features
N, V, ADJ, ADV
VD:
child
: young human being (found in a dictionary) --> denotative meaning of the word "child" child: [+human], [+immature], [+-male]
Proposition + Sentences + Utterances
PROPOSITION
part of the meaning of the utterance of a declarative sentence which describe some state of affairs
the state of affairs typically involves persons / things referred to by expressions in the sentence
not belong to any particular language
Semantic unit
VD1: John gave Many a book
Mary was given a book by John
Meaning (bề mặt) thì như nhau, nhưng purpose thì khác nhau.
VD2: Harry took out the garbage
Harry took the garbage out.
Giống nghĩa nhau
"take out" là một phrasal verb
➡có thể tách particle ra được
take A out = take out A
VD3: Mr. Dinday killed Janet (intentionally)
Mr. Dinday caused Janet to die. (unintentionally)
VD4: Jack was injured by a stone. (unintionally)
Jack was injured with a stone (intentionally)
SENTENCES
Neither physical event nor physical object
It is conceived abstractly, a string of words put together by the
grammartical rules
of a language
a sentence can be thought of as the idea string of word behind a realization
sentences in different languages can correspond to the same proposition if the two sentences are perfect translations of each other
VD: Happy New Year! Xin nian kuai le!
Grammartical Unit
Type 1: Analytic sentences (Makes sense)
sentence that is necessarily
TRUE
, as a result of the senses of the words in it.
VD:
All elephants are annimals.
John's brother is a boy.
Cats are not vegetables.
Type 2: Contradictory sentences
sentence that is necessarily
FALSE
, as a result of the senses of the words in it.
VD:
This animal is a vegetable.
Type 3: Synthetic sentences
(Makes sense, nhưng chưa chắc đúng sự thật)
sentence which is NOT Analytic
but may be either true/false, depending on the way the world is
VD:
John's brother is 9 years olds
. (Nhỡ đâu speaker nhầm thì false , còn nhớ đúng thì true. )
No
cats like to bathe. (trên TG, chắc chắn có mèo thích tắm, nên có thể là true)
Cats
never
live more than 20 years. (con sống lâu nhất là 35 năm lận đó nha)
UTTERANCES
the use of by a particular speaker, on a particular occasion for a particular purpose of a piece of a language, such as a sequence of sentences / single phrase
the same proposition can be expressed by different sentences & that the same sentence can be realised by different utterances on a particular occaions.
Physical event
REFERENT & SENSE
REFERENT
an object / entity in the real world OR in the world of imagination
VD: book --> in the real world
VD: dragon --> imagination
REFERENCE
the relationship between a word / a linguistic expression & its referent
VARIABLE REFERENCE
🅰 --> 1️⃣, 2️⃣, .....
The same linguistic expression refers to different referents.
VD: "your right hand"
(tay phải của tôi, tay phải của La, tay phải của thầy.....)
CONSTANT REFERENCE
🅰 --> 1️⃣ only (hòn vọng phu)
one linguistic expression refers to one and the same referent
vd: the Sun, the Moon
CO-REFERENCE
🅰, 🅱,..... ----> 1️⃣
2+ linguisitc expressions share the same referent
VD: Hoàng Thị Nga / La = Nga
VD: the first African American president / the 44th President of US / Michelle Obama's husband = ông Barack Obama
SENSE (nghĩa hệ thống)
the internal relationship between word / a linguistic expression and others in the vocabulary of a lg.
VD1: Dogs are animal.
Animal & dog đều có [+animate]
--> có sense
VD2: Dogs are human
[+human] <> [+inhuman]
--> bị violated --> không có sense
SENSE TYPES
1️⃣ ANALYTIC SENTENSES
Sentence that is neccessary
TRUE
✔, as an result of the senses of the words in it. (không có properties nào violate)
VD: All elephants are animals
VD: John's nine-year-old brother is a boy.
2️⃣ CONTRADICTORY SENTENCES
a sentence that is necessarily
FALSE
❌ as a result of the senses of the words in it. (giống Abnomaly í)
VD: this animal is a vegetable.
3️⃣ Synthetic sentences
sentence which is NOT ANALYTIC, but manybe either TRUE/FALSE depending on the way the world is. ✔ ❌
VD: John is from England.
TRUE: if John đến từ England
FALSE: if John đến từ nước khác với England.
PARAPHRASE
a sentence express the
same proposition
as another sentence is a paraphrase of that sentence (assuming the
same referents
for any referring expression involved)
the relationship between a word and a combination of other words with the same meaning.
To provide a paraphrase we use our knowledge of both:
the meanings of individual words
the meanings of the English grammar
VD: I'll
look for
that book
right now
.
--> I'll
seek for
that book
at once
.
1️⃣CHANGE INDIVIDUAL WORDS
Using Synonyms
VD: Cats
drink
cream
--> Cats
consume
cream.
Using relational antonyms
VD: She
lent
that book to Jim.
--> Jim borrowed that bok from her.
2️⃣ CHANGE SENTENCE STRUCTURE
VD: Cats drink cream.
--> Passive: Cream is drank by cats.
3️⃣ = 1️⃣ ➕ 2️⃣
VD: Cats drink cream.
--> the liquid fat of milk is drunk by cats.
ENTAILMENT
a relationship that applies between two sentences, where the truth of one implies the truth of the other because of the meanings of the words involved.
1️⃣ One-way entailment
=>
come about b/c of
hyponymic relations
between words
Vd: Alfred saw a bear.
=> Alfred saw an animal.
VD: John is a bachelor.
=> John is a man.
2️⃣ Two-way entailment
<=>
between
a pair of sentences
are
mutual
since the
truth
of either sentence guarantees the truth of the other.
Paraphrase
VD: The police
chased
the burglar.
<=> The burglar
was chased
by the police.
Relational pairs of antonyms
VD: Paul
borrowed
a car
from
Sue.
<=> Sue lent a car to Paul
PRESUPPOSITION
(Tiền giả định)
Charateristics 😎
Remain the same under its negation & interrogation
VD: a.John stopped smoking.
bJohn didn't stop smoking.
c.Did John stop smoking?
d. Why did John stop smoking?
Presupposition như nhau:
'1. S assumes H knows who "John" is
'2. John once smoked cigarettes.
The presupposition of an utterance may be cancelled under its extension
VD: She didn't feel regret at the overcooked meat.
--> The meat was overcooked.
Classification
1️⃣ The existential presupposition
Proper name
Possessive construction
Pronouns (he, she, it, they)
possessive adjectives (his, her, its, their)
definite article (the)
definite noun phrases
ojbjective pronoun (him, her, them, it)
VD: I lost my watch yesterday.
(posessive construction + definite noun)
--> I had a watch.
2️⃣ The factive presupposition
Verbs: know, realize, regret, be aware, be odd, be glad, be happy, ....
words / linguistic expressions genrally introduce a presupposed fact
VD: nobody realized that Kelly was ill.
--> Kelly was ill.
VD: I was aware / wasn't aware that she was married.
--> She was married
3️⃣ The non-factive presupposition
verb: dream, wish,hope, pretend, imagine...
word / linguistic expression affirm cartain situations not be be in real world.
VD: I imagined that Kelly was sick.
Kelly wasn't sick.
VD: I dreamed that I was rich.
I was not rich.
4️⃣ The lexical presupposition
Verbs:
manage
, stop, start, buy, lose, change, .....
Adverbs:
again
, more,
no longer
, so, such, ....
The semantic properties of the words / linguitic expressions used contain a presupposed fact.
VD: You're late again.
You one were late. / You were late before.
VD: My sister's going to change job.
My sister has a job already.
5️⃣ The structural presupposition
WH- questions
VD: Where did you buy the bike?
You bought a bike.
VD: When did he leave?
He left.
Embedded questions
VD: it is odd how pround he was.
He was proud.
6️⃣ The counter-factual presupposition
Conditional tenses
The speakers has to presuppose sth that counteracts the fact referred to
VD: If I had enough money, I would buy that house.
(I do not have enough money.)
VD: If you were my friend, you'd have helped me.
(You are not my friend)
IMPLICATURE
Sth must be more than just what the words mean
It is an additional converyed meaning
1️⃣ Conversational implicature
bridge the gap between what is literally said & what is conveyed
Grice's theory of conversational implicature
based on the cooperative principle & its four basic maxims
1️⃣Quality (be true)
try to make your contribution one that is true
specially, do NOT say what for which you lack adequate evidence
VD: A: John has two PhDs.
B: John has two PhDs but I don't believe he has.
Implicature: You should be suspicious of the true value of his PhDs.
Maxim flouted: Quality
2️⃣ Quantity (be brief)
make your contribution as informative as required for current purposes of the exchange
VD: A: Hve you finished your homework and put your books away?
B: I have finished my homework.
Implicature: I haven't put my books away.
Maxim flouted: Quantity
3️⃣ Relevance
make your contribution relevant
VD: A: Where is Bill?
B: There a yellow BMW outside Sue's house.
Implicature: Bill is at Sue's house.
Maxim flouted: Relevance
4️⃣ Manner (be clear)
VD: A: Would you like a cocktail? It's my own invention.
B: Well, mmm uh.. it's not that we don't drink.
Implicature: No, thanks.
Maxim flouted: Manner
2️⃣Conventional implicature
associated with specific words and result in additional conveyed meanings when those words are used
VD: Linda suggested black,
but
I chose white.
VD:
Even
John came to the party.
VD: Jenny isn't here
yet
.
LEXICAL AMBIGUITY
Ambiguity of a word
VD: They were waiting at the bank.
bank: a financial institution
bank: the shore of a river
VD: The robot is bright
bright: shining
bright: intelligent
ANOMALY
a violation of semantic rules to create nonsense
VD: That
bachelor
is
pregnant
.
bachelor: [+male]
pregnant: [+female]
--> That bachelor is so
handsome
.
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