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Opportunties and threats from ocean resources - Coggle Diagram
Opportunties and threats from ocean resources
Tidal energy
Ocean Energy Systems (OES):
wind & wave energy along coastlines
tidal energy
salinity differences
ocean thermal energy conversion (OTEC)
Tidal power technologies:
can only be on coastlines
flow of water with rise & fall of tides (most have 2 high & low tides daily)
dependent on natural geog of coastline & tidal range >5m
generation not always coincide with demand
ocean water 832x denser than air
easy to install
Tidal barrages:
most efficient energy resource
dam & turbine
tech based on pressures caused by tidal movement
potential energy is generated during flood & ebb tides
pressures of water drive turbines and generate electricity
Tidal fences:
giant turnstyles
freestanding
Tidal (submerged) turbines:
similar to wind turbines but underwater
free standing
submerged in open water (Strangford Lough) 2007
large size 1.2MW as water flows through the gap
Rance Estuary tidal barrage, France:
highest tidal range in France: average 8.2m
a large reservoir: 184,000,000m³ spread over more than 20km upstream
estuary only 750m wide for building the barrage
240MW capacity
Employs 28 staff
Built in 1967 at a cost of €95m (around €580 today)
Sihwa Lake, Incheon: South Korea:
off the West Coast of South Korea, Sihwa Lake is a 43.8km2 artificial lake constructed as a land reclamation project by gov in 1994 using 12.7km long seawall in Gyeongg Bay
generates energy 2x a day at high tide (sluice gates closed when tide comes in)
10 water turbines, each capacity of 25.4Mw, produced 552.76Mw of electricity annually, enough to support domestic needs of city with population of 500,000 people
works 365 days a year
Positive impacts:
flow has improved lake water quality
1998, chemical oxygen level was 17ppm since reduced to 2ppm, causing improved habitat for all species of fish
Sihwa embankment, 12.7km in length, popular spot for leisures like sport - power station & surrounding area attract 1.5m annually
popular site for learning about ecosystems, 146 bird species & 46 million birds in & around lake
Negative impacts:
initially increased water pollution & deteriorated wildlife habitat
after seawall, population built up in newly created lake reservoir, making water useless for agriculture
cost $560m to build, same cost as Tenger Desert Solar Park in China that has 850Mw capacity (3x)
specific proposed projects threaten tidal-flat wetlands that support unique ecosystems and support thousands of migratory birds
Tidal energy potential in the UK:
4 possible locations identified e.g. Solway Firth & Dee Estuary (Liverpool)
2021, UK announced that £20m would be invested annually to developing tidal energy
Proposed tidal lagoon: Swansea Bay
tidal lagoon works similar to a barrage, high tide fills and low tide empties through a turbine; does not lock off an entire estuary, only part of it
planned for construction in 2020, 16 hydro turbines and a 9.5km breakwater wall
over 120 years the 320MW project will generate electricity for 155,000 homes
cost: £1.3b
plan scrapped in 2018, seen as ‘not cost effective’ (despite high initial costs, it would have lasted a long time)
What is stopping us from making the most of tidal energy?
currently expensive to construct tidal power plants, high capital investments
environmental issues e.g. habitat change, particularly with tidal barrages
maintaining and repairing equipment can be a challenge
limited energy demand, powerful tides only normally 10 hours/day, tidal energy storage capacity must be developed
difficult to provide tidal energy to coastal communities, energy produced by the tides is often a long distance from where the electricity will be used inland.
Pros:
Local:
secure, non-polluting
creation of short-term construction jobs
National:
achievement of national goals to reduce greenhouse gases (GHGs)
fiscal saving from reducing imports of fossil fuels
immediate stimulation of employment
Global:
achievement of global goals to reduce GHGs
delay in depletion of fossil fuels
Cons:
Local:
ecosystem destruction
decline of local fisheries and related long-term jobs
lost opportunity for long-term jobs in eco-tourism & related fields
increased risk of flooding
impact on natural landscape
National:
large initial cost for construction
decline / extinction of legally protected species
decline of fisheries & eco-tourism along west coast & associated possible long-term net loss in employment
disruption of tidal processes
Global:
decline of biodiversity
destruction of globally unique ecosystems & natural landscapes
Global tidal energy potential:
Chile, at least 500Mw potentially available
Australia, King Sound in NW has some of the highest tides in the world (~10m)
etc
Dynamic tidal power:
formed in the Netherlands, Kees Hulsbergen co-inventor
designed to generate electric energy from the kinetics of tidal water
works using a long dam (least 30km) that creates a hydraulic head, a barrier parallel to a coastline
patented turbines for this that give 5MW each, a dam of 40km can accommodate 2000 turbines corresponding to over 10GW of installed capacity, enough to supply millions of households with sustainable energy
Sept 2012, representatives of Chinese and Dutch governments signed an agreement to continue investing in implementation of Dynamic Tidal Power in China
Seabed mining
Ferrous
= minerals containing or consisting of iron e.g. iron ores (used in steel making)
Non-ferrous
= minerals that do not contain iron e.g. copper (used in manufacturing of steel & electrical equipment)
Distribution of deposits:
polymetallic sulphides / vents are on plate boundaries, hydrothermal vents along MORs
polymetallic nodules are mainly in North & Western Pacific, especially in CC2, on abyssal plains
cobalt-rich crusts are also mainly in Western Pacific, seamounts & guyots
Polymetallic nodules of abyssal plains:
rocky lumps 5-10cms, made of Iron, manganese, nickel, copper and lithium, also platinum & tellurium (used in photovoltaic cells & catalytic technology)
slow growth rate (mms-cms/million years)
deep oceans 4-6.5kms (abyssal plains e.g. Pacific Ocean)
best example: Clarion Clipperton Zone in the equatorial Pacific)
Cobalt-Rich Crusts (CRCs): Seamounts and guyots:
adhered to seamounts, ridges and plateaus 400-7,000m
hard solid layers up to 25cms – form as ferromanganese precipitate out of seawater
Cobalt, Nickel, platinum and REE (Rare Earth Elements), cobalt used in superalloys - jet engines & batteries
initial licences issued by ISA targeted at guyots
upwelling nutrients provides ‘oasis’ of biodiversity rare ecosystems corals etc..
Environmental impacts of seabed mining:
not well known due to not starting yet
noise & pollution of ships including leaks
intro of light to seafloor
dewatering of slurry, clouding effect on seawater (reduced oxygen levels & primary productivity)
affects salinity, temp, and introduces toxic chemicals
eradication of vent communities (10 year recolonisation period)
filter feeders may be affected by chemical and disturbance affects species; sessile organisms do not return, mobile tend to recover easier
seamounts affected by trawling take 10s of years to recover
displacement and disruption of fisheries and livelihoods during site development and extraction
Regulation and management of seabed mining:
EEZs – 200miles have sovereign rights
Areas Beyond Natural Jurisdiction (ABNJ) – ‘Area’ as common heritage of mankind (UNCLOS Article 136) and involves conservation & protection of the environment
International Seabed Authority (ISA) is responsible for mineral resources and the marine environment of the Area; considers application for exploration and extraction from contractors (valid for 15 years) – regulates beyond national jurisdiction
regional seabed Mining Guidelines (under development) e.g. MIN-Guide initiative of EU (15 members)
Governing seabed mining:
number of strategies:
baseline studies – understand what species live and how they can be affected by mining
Environmental impact assessment (EIA) – assess the potential extent and damage by mining; regulations in place before mining begins
Mitigation – protected areas, controls on permitted extent and duration of mining, minimising impacts by improving equipment design to reduce disturbance
Enhanced regulation – ISA (International Seabed Authority) conflicting mandate of development vs environmental impact control
Managing:
less than 0.0001% of deeps floor sampled & studied in detail
more than 1.5m km2 of international seabed set aside for mineral exploration along Mid Atlantic Ridge
Contracts:
29 exploration contracts awarded by ISA since 2001
lots of contracts already given, e.g. Chinese contractors due to wanting batteries, ready to exploit
private companies e.g. COMRA (China)
Extraction methods:
1) hydraulic suction
disruption to environment
sucking up organisms
toxicity & water pollution from carriers
2) ROVs - remotely operated vehicles
disruption to environment
material & habitat removal
plumes
routine discharges (MARPOL)
Other impacts:
individuals:
respiratory & auditory distress
reduced feeding
reduced visual communication
buoyancy issues
toxicity
populations:
changes in community composition
emigration
mortality
decreased fitness / reproduction
ecosystems:
fisheries & seafood contamination
carbon transport
biodiversity
Part XI and 1994 agreement:
ISA was established by the UNCLOS in order to regulate and control seabed exploration and mining outside territorial waters and EEZ
ISA govern "the area", only 1.2% protected
Definition:
process of retrieving mineral deposits from the deep sea (below 200m)
Advantages:
can be used in renewable energy & smart tech e.g. wind turbines - can be recycled e.g. 68% cobalt
large variety of minerals e.g. copper, nickel etc
economic advantages
Disadvantages:
could impact fisheries, marine genetic resources, tourism & carbon sequestration
only 20% of all marine species discovered, unknown impacts
noise, light & heat pollution
waste sediment could suffocate small swimmers like plankton
in 30 years, area disturbed had little return of animals
can wipe out entire species
loss of ecosystem structure & function
plumes, smother animals
hard up the food chain
loss of biomedical solutions (deep sea sponges have antimicrobial compounds that could be used to make new antibiotics)
Metallic deposits:
Abyssal plains – polyminerallic nodules(Fe, Ni, Co, Cu & Mn)
Hydrothermal vents (Mn, Zn, Au, & Ag)
Seamounts – cobalt crusts
Seafloor – massive sulphides (SMS):
found on MOR, hydrothermal activity linked to vents (350°C)
200 known sites
In pacific – rich in copper <2kms shallow depth
Copper, lead, zinc, silver, gold, barium & nickel
extensive vent ecosystems – 85% endemic species
mostly in areas of jurisdiction (some outside)
The issue:
technological issues, distance (below 3000m), and pressure (300x surface), means machines harvesting would have to withstand
cost of tech & engineering
Nautilus minerals has managed to make 3 machines, 2 crush and 1 collects
lack of legal framework
possibly environmentally destructive
many microbes live on polymetallic nodules, take over 10m years to form
waste slurry (1989 scientists stimulated mining, nearly 3 decades later tracks still there, microbe & animals not fully recovered)
some of that bacteria absorbs carbon from oceans
The global commons
What are the global commons?
Concept describes the rights of all peoples to the benefits of the common areas beyond the control of any individual nation state
Global commons are a resource domains outside the political reach of any one nation state; 'supra-national' spaces
1) the high seas
2) the atmosphere
3) outer space
4) antarcica
some argue cyberspace can be a 5th
resources in commons are available for everyone’s use & benefit, taking into account future generations & needs of developing countries
common heritage under increasing pressure due to greater access & tech, causes greater scarcity of resources
The tragedy of the commons:
Individual users who have open access to a resource unhampered by shared social structures or formal rules that govern access or use, act independently according to their own self-interest and, contrary to the common good of all users, cause depletion of the resource through their uncoordinated action
concept first described in a pamphlet by W.F. Lloyd in 1833, discussion of overgrazing of cattle in village common areas
Garrett Hardin (1915-2003) viewed concept to explain limit resources & self interest against common good
need for international law & global governance to protect
Governing of the global commons:
often by international law, guided by the 'principle of the common heritage of mankind'
we must reform cities, global food & agriculture, energy systems and current economic model
following the Stockholm Intergovernmental Conference in 1972, creation of international environmental agreements proliferated
Institutional frameworks:
UNCLOS for high seas
Antarctic Treaty Systems for Antarctica
UNFCCC (and Montreal & Kyoto Protocol) for atmosphere
1979 Moon Treaty & Treaty on Principles Governing Activities of States in the Exploration & use of Outer Space for outer space
The ocean as a global common:
in areas beyond the limits of sovereign states ("international waters"):
navigation is a common good, oceans are preserved as commons for navigation
deep seas over 370km from land are global common for fishing
mineral extraction usually beyond 650km from land must be undertaken from the common good
The Sustainable Development Goals:
SDGs, set up by UN in 2014, are a possible solution to eliminate threats to global commons
SDG 14 refers directly to conservation and sustainable use of the oceans, sea and marine resources
it mentions reduce marine pollution, sustainable fishing, reduce ocean acidification, implement & enforce international sea law, increase economic benefits from sustainable use of marine resources etc
Oil & gas (hydrocarbons)
7 requirements for oil production:
1) source rocks (organic, carbon-rich)
2) maturation (burial, heating released hydrocarbons)
3) migration (buoyant hydrocarbons rise upwards)
4) recevoir rocks (porous & permeable)
5) cap rocks (a seal to stop escape)
6) traps (a geometric rock structure preventing escape)
7) tectonics (a basin with a suitable burial history)
since mid 20thC there has been an increasing demand for oil & gas stimulated exploitation & production the continental shelf
nature of geological requirements for an oil reserve mean very few locations around the world where oil & gas reserves can be found
Uses:
main use is transport, >50% used for road, shipping & aviation
agriculture: power irrigation, fertilisers, fuel equipment
petrochemical industry (plastics, rubber, pharmaceuticals, etc); around 3%
Locations:
most oil & gas fields occur along edge of continents, in recent sedimentary basins
Oil reserves:
a reserve is the amount of oil that can be extracted at a profit
a reserve can change, up and down, due to: new discoveries, new technologies to extract, rise in oil prices, exhaustion of a reserve, calculations of a reserve are incorrect, small oil fields become economic
region with largest gas & oil reserves in 2019 is Middle East, CIS and N.America (Middle East overwhelming, 836 thousand million barrels of oil & 75 trillion cubic meters of gas)
Europe has negative % change from 2000-2019, likely to exhaust oil & gas first
reserves(R)-to-production(P) ratio, number of years a resource will last (can change)
World consumption:
oil & natural gas consumption has increased from 1995-2020; drop off in 2020 due to pandemic
as a share of global primary energy, oil has decreased at a steady rate since 1995, natural gas has gently increased
general discoveries of oil has increased throughout time 1860-2020 (cumulative continuously), since 1960s rate of new discoveries has slowed
How much oil is left?
oil resources = total quantity of hydrocarbons that are underground, even if not economically feasible to extract & undiscovered
oil reserves = amount of oil economically viable to extract, determined by price of oil
peak oil is the point at which oil production worldwide reaches a maximum, to be followed by a gradual decline
peak oil predictions vary, from 2000-2050
Key issues:
hard to extract
price fluctuations (influences investment & exploitation)
global commons, overextraction
non-renewable / finite resource
demand & consumption increasing (driven exploration on continental shelf)
positive & negative economic & environmental impacts
Gulf of Mexico:
The Gulf of Mexico is a body of water between Mexico & Florida, the main oil & gas fields are in Texas & Louisiana, as well as a smaller one near the bottom on the Gulf touching SE Mexico - this together forms the Mexico Bay Basin
Offshore activities:
over 3200 offshore structures are active in the area, interconnecting with over 40,000km of oil & gas pipelines
most activities primarily in central and western Gulf of Mexico (off coast of Texas & Louisiana) in waters up to 1000m deep
produces 17% of US crude oil and 5% US natural gas
more than 200 deepwater oil & gas discoveries have been made here in last 50 years
Oil & gas production:
shallow (shelf) extractions of oil and gas have gradually decreased since 1996-2022
deepwater extraction of oil has increased since 1996 (although fluctuations), but gas production has decreased at a similar rate to shelf extractions
major drops in 2005, 2008 & 2020 because of hurricanes (Katrina, Sept 2005) (Gustav & Ike, Sept 2008) (Marco & Laura, Aug 2020)
History of discoveries:
in the 1970s-80s (and some extent 90s) large discoveries in near shore & on land
size of near shore discoveries decreases with time (1970-2020)
larger number of offshore (deeper) discoveries overtime
discoveries are in deeper water as time progresses
oil production is projected to grow up to around 2027 before falling again down to 2030
gas is predicted to stay relatively stable to the current 2020 rate until 2030; plateaued
Technological advances:
deep waters provide extraordinarily rich wells, but also challenged with difficulties related to offshore oil search & drilling
new undertaking demanded improvement of existing oil drilling technologies & development of new comprehensive & innovative solutions that allow for safe & effective deepwater drilling
Innovative rig tech:
jack-up rig platform, stand on solid 3/4 leg frame of depths up to 150m, now semi-submersible platforms buoyed by large plactorm & an anchor/engine keeping in position, deep water e.g. Deepwater Horizon more than 3,000m
blowout preventer, stops explosion & leakages due to high pressure
How is Gulf of Mexico managed?
The Gulf of Mexico Region (GOM) & Bureau of Safety and Environmental Enforcement (BSEE) manages the Gulf of Mexico Outer Continental Shelf (OCS): overseeing nearly 2,000 facilities and over 20,000km of active pipeline in the Gulf of Mexico
Management involves:
1) Reviewing activity permits (well permits, production safety permits, etc.)
2) Inspections of drilling rigs and production platforms using inspection teams, pre-production inspections of platforms prior to installation, helping to develop and enforce standards and regulations, and enforcing environmental compliance.
3) Helping to develop and enforce standards and regulations, and enforcing environmental compliance.
4) Regional and field operations personnel also investigate incidents that result in injuries and/or pollution.
BSEE:
Enforcement tools such as the issuance of incidents of Non-Compliance (INC) citations to require operators to correct violations, issuing civil penalties, and conducting Annual Performance Reviews (APR) of operators.
Within the Region, the Office of Safety Management reviews and audits each operator's safety program using Safety and Environmental Management Systems (SEMS), incident data, and safety reports.
Also a continued effort to assess new technology within deepwater operations.
Pros of greater deepwater exploitation & exploration in GOM:
offshore drilling creates many new local, often high-skilled paying jobs; GOM oil & gas industry supports 345,000 jobs in USA
2019, GOM oil & gas contributed $28.7bn to US economy
intro & further development of deepwater oil drilling, more nations get opportunity to explore oceans, become more self-reliant & restore energy independence
2019, US gov earned $5.4b revenue from GOM oil & gas industry
oil and gas rigs act as artificial reefs, increasing local marine species
Economic impact of oil & gas:
production from the Gulf of Mexico OCS is projected to average around 2.5m barrels of oil equivalent per day over 2020-2040
2019, 345 thousand jobs in USA
$28.7B to the U.S. economy; projected to grow to $31.3B of GDP per year across the forecast period
2019, gov revenues due to the GOM oil and natural gas industry reached nearly $5.4B
2019, GOM oil producing states received around $353m of revenues due to revenue sharing while the Land and Water Conservation Fund (LWCF) received over $1 billion of distributions
Cons of greater deepwater exploitation & exploration in GOM:
most oil on market comes from major petroleum nations (OPEC), those that produce oil & gas have power to control importers to an extent and impose artificial shortages of gas/oil
requires special equipment, more expensive than conventional oil well
if emergency crew cannot clean up & contain spills in short time, massive dead zone in ocean appears
enormous risks, especially for workers operating the well; more dangerous & difficult to eliminate due to distance from emergency services
seismic waves triggered by drilling process are harmful to many sea mammals, primary reason so many whales beach themselves
petroleum plants contribute to air and water pollution
sometimes entire towns made for workers, makes even harder for transition to greener practices
process of setting up well equipment leads to biosphere damage, unavoidable
What is oil?
A fossil fuel formed millions of years ago from decaying vegetation, found in pores of sedimentary rocks
Oil extraction:
Primary, oil gushes out naturally when drilling, 15% of oil underground recovered
Secondary, pumping, 20-40%
Tertiary, oil generally to vicious to extract, tertiary recovery tech, rate up to 60%
around 40% oil not extractable
there are growing advanced oil techniques, e.g. thermal, chemical & biological recovery
Wave energy
Methods:
first design was called The Edinburgh Duck, made in Scotland, but nothing came of it
Attenuators
sits on ocean surface, each section with joints allowing attenuator to undulate along each wave
movement pushes and pulls hydraulic cylinders causing high pressure causing electric current
first one made can power up to 500 homes / unit
Over toppers
March 2003 first prototype launched
wave approached rig, wave reflectors guide into center into reservoir where it is then run through many hydro turbines, spins, into electricity with magnetic generator
can withstand environmental hazards well
large waves can pass over
Point absorbers
buoy floats above water to generate power
shaft anchored to sea floor, buoy moves up and down with waves, pumping action causing electricity
single unit generate enough power for 40 homes
Advantages:
no air pollution
cheap to run
no fuel needed
satellite data on winds can help predict wave movement days in advance
wave energy devices can generate several times more power for the space they occupy compared to wind turbines
early indications say impacts may be relatively low as most devices float along with current so unlikely to hit marine mammals
2021, Europe installed 3x more capacity in wave power than the previous year
estimated that by 2050 wave power will generate 10% of global power
economies of scale will bring down costs
Disadvantages:
expensive to install
may interfere with fishing areas
a lot of turbines to generate a small amount of electricity
may impact marine environments and habitats
create visual pollution at the coastline
waves dont travel in one direction, unlike wind
saltwater eats most metals overtime and marine creatures begin to use it as a base to live on slowly breaking it down; can get corrosive resistant alloys but expensive
competition, focus on energy like wind & nuclear